“TO HEAL THE WOUNDS”: NAMIBIAN OVAHERERO’S CONTESTS OVER COMING TO TERMS WITH THE GERMAN COLONIAL PAST Karie L. Morgan A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology. Chapel Hill 2010 Approved by: Margaret Wiener Peter Redfield Christopher Nelson Robert Daniels Colin T. West ©2010 Karie L. Morgan ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii Abstract KARIE L. MORGAN: “To Heal the Wounds”: Namibian Ovaherero’s Contests over Coming to Terms with the German Colonial Past (Under the direction of Margaret Wiener ) This dissertation describes why events of 100 years ago, during the German colonial period, remain so salient for many Ovaherero today as well as what it means to them to come to terms with that past. A national contest emerged about whether and how to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the 1904-1907 Herero genocide, or war, in Namibia. These commemorations and their planning illustrate some of the social and political context in which restorative justice has proceeded. Fissures among Herero and Namibian communities emerge in the commemorations as well as contests over the production of accounts of the past within Namibia. Different versions of the past circulated within different communities and came into conflict in the context of the commemorations and the broader restorative justice project. These divergent histories all had to be reconciled, even if temporarily, for the purposes of bringing multiple parties together to address an agreed upon past through restorative justice. Remembering for the past for Ovaherero, generally and 1904-1907 in particular, incorporates narratives, embodied memory, and daily practice. Because remembering for Ovaherero makes such use of contemporary contexts of suffering as prompts to talk about the past, remembering the past has much to do with how the past is felt in the present. As some Ovaherero pursued restorative justice with Germany, meanings of these attempts were constantly framed and re-framed and restorative justice ideas were iii negotiated with Herero understandings of the impact of the past in the present. Finally, I argue that restorative justice as cultural practice produces new social forms—understandings of the past, relationships, and subjectivities. For Ovaherero, this process has created new “truths” about the past, shaped the role of their ancestors as victims, and focused the forms of violence remembered into those pertinent to claims of genocide. iv Acknowledgements As I emerge from this project that has constituted the centre of my life for several years, the task of adequately acknowledging those who helped enable this experience feels immense and virtually impossible. I offer heartfelt gratitude to all who have supported and guided me through this project. I began to see this project as an emerging reality thanks to generous financial support for pre-dissertation research in Namibia with a University of North Carolina’s University Center for International Studies Graduate Travel Award and a U.S. Student Fulbright Fellowship , Otjiherero language training in Namibia with a Foreign Language Area Studies Fellowship , pre-dissertation research in Germany with a Society for the Anthropology of Europe/Council for European Studies Pre-dissertation Fellowship , and German language training at the Goethe Institute with a German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) scholarship . I was then able to complete my research with a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Award . Christo Botha of the History Department at the University of Namibia provided a much-appreciated institutional affiliation throughout my time in Namibia. Although research of this nature will likely never reach a sense of conclusion, I feel very fortunate that these organizations made possible a thorough research experience from which I can continue future scholarship. While numerous people aided my life in Namibia over the years, enabling my research, I feel a particular debt to the individuals who helped me settle in places where I initially knew no one: to Natascha Gee, Abigail Guerier, Toni Hart, and Byron Hart for v easing and continually supporting my transition to and happiness with a new place and ways of life; to Jekura Kavari and Kazenambo Kazenambo for finding homes for me at research sites; to Thelina Katjirokere for enthusiastically presenting herself as my first guide to Herero culture and politics; and to Katy Davis, who for a time was my fellow American in Okakarara, for introducing me to many helpful community members. Many family members and life-long friends have supported me through the dissertation process despite my physical absence from their lives for much of this period, including: Sharon Morgan, Dan Morgan, Jason Morgan, William and Virginia Ely, Carolyn Brown, AnnMarie Walton, Livia Foo, Olga Savi ć Stella, Jennifer Fiedler, Mary Ivanov, and Sarah Fay-Simons. In addition to my writing partner, Amy Mortensen, several individuals were particularly instrumental to my progress in writing this dissertation: Peggy Donaldson, Reuben Thomas, and Caryl Feldacker. My research depended on the willingness of many individuals in Namibia to share their opinions, experiences, and knowledge. I am immensely grateful for each person’s trust, generosity with her/his time, and patience in teaching me. Among my Windhoek acquaintances, I owe particular thanks to Rudolph Hongoze, Vitura Kavari, Arnold Tjihuiko, and Chief Kuaima Riruako. To the many residents of Okakarara and surrounding villages who contributed to my research, I offer a humble “okuhepa tjinene!” In addition to the teachers at Okakarara Primary School, who were my daily companions, I greatly appreciated the help of the following individuals: Bertha Kapuire for taking in a stranger, introducing me to Okakarara, and offering critical insights into being a Herero woman; Kaivii for bringing me the daily newspapers; the Kambazembi Royal House for introductions to several leaders; Erastus Hepundjua for facilitating several insightful interviews; Jessica Haimene for serving vi as a companion and translator for many interviews; Tjerimo Vesee-ve te for sharing some of his knowledge and entrusting me with many of his writings; and to Magord Mbeuserua for her hospitality and for teaching me much about Herero culture and politics. My indebtedness to Asnath Katjitundu and her family stands in a category of its own. Asnath not only became a close friend and unending source of knowledge and research assistance, but also gave me a home and a family. I am honored to know the Katjitundu, Haimene, and Munoko families and forever grateful for their warmth and generosity. Finally, I wish to sincerely thank those who led me through this project and offered valuable criticism throughout. Alison Fletcher, a friend and mentor, has long been a source of supportive guidance and feedback on my work, especially this dissertation. Several individuals have served on my committee and invaluably helped to shape my research and this dissertation: Peter Redfield, Christopher Nelson, Cathy Lutz, Julius Nyang’oro, Robert Daniels, and Colin West. My advisor and committee chair, Margaret Wiener, has patiently seen me through the entire project, from providing feedback on grant applications to critically reading drafts of this dissertation. Her early advice to never underestimate the role of serendipity in fieldwork saw me through a number of frustrating moments. I am especially grateful for the example she set with her intellectual rigor and skillful writing. I have negotiated all these various sources of knowledge and critique as best as I could and assume sole responsibility for this dissertation. vii Table of Contents List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. xii INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 Colonial War and Genocide .................................................................................................. 3 Approaching the Past ............................................................................................................ 5 To Address the Pain of the Past ............................................................................................ 7 Restorative justice as social practice .................................................................................. 12 Research Contexts ............................................................................................................... 14 Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 28 1. STRUGGLING TO REMEMBER 1904: THE 2004 COMMEMORATIONS .................................... 36 The Centenary Year ............................................................................................................ 38 Planning to Commemorate ................................................................................................. 43 The National Preparatory Committee for Commemoration of 1904 .................................. 51 The Committees .................................................................................................................