Nanotechnol Rev 2016; 5(6): 601–622 Review Agbaje Lateef*, Sunday A. Ojo and Joseph A. Elegbede The emerging roles of arthropods and their metabolites in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles DOI 10.1515/ntrev-2016-0049 Received June 22, 2016; accepted August 5, 2016; previously 1 Introduction published online October 14, 2016 Arthropods belong to the phylum Arthropoda, and this Abstract: Nanotechnology has remained relevant as a consists of the insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crus- multifacet discipline, which cuts across different areas taceans. Arthropods possess distinct features, which of science and technology. Several successful attempts include jointed limbs and cuticle composed of calcium had been documented regarding the involvement of bio- carbonate and/or α-chitin [1]. There are several millions logical materials in the green synthesis of various metal of arthropod species varying between 1,170,000 and 5–10 nanoparticles (MeNPs) because of their eco-friendliness, million, and for this reason, they account for more than cost-effectiveness, safe handling, and ultimately less 80% of all known species of living animals and approxi- toxicity as opposed to the physical and chemical meth- mately two thirds of currently existing species [2]. There ods with their concomitant problems. Biological agents, are four major groups of arthropods: Chelicerata (horse- including bacteria, fungi, algae, enzymes, plants, and shoe, spiders, and scorpions), Crustacea (shrimps, lob- their extracts, have been implicated in most cases by sev- sters, and crabs), Tracheata (insects and myriapods), eral authors. Moreover, nanotechnology in recent times and the extinct trilobites, which were the first animals has also made an inroad for animal species, specifically whose eyes were reportedly capable of high-degree reso- arthropods and metabolites thereof to be used as excel- lution, with several other species that are well known [3]. lent candidates for the green synthesis of MeNPs. The It has been established that insects and other arthropods increasing literature on the use of metabolites of arthro- provide condiments that have been highly essential and pods for the green synthesis of nanoparticles has neces- of utmost importance in traditional medicine for many sitated the need to document a review on their relevance years, particularly in some parts of Africa, East Asia, and in nanobiotechnology. The review, which represents the South America [4]. first of its kind, seeks to underscore the importance of Natural products, which are usually secondary metab- arthropods in the multidisciplinary subject of nanosci- olites, and their derivatives constitute more than 50% of ence and nanotechnology. the drugs used clinically for the treatment of diverse ail- ments world over. Many of these products are produced Keywords: arthropods; green synthesis; nanoparticles; from plants, fungi, and bacteria [5]. However, it has been spider; wasp. reported that arthropods, being ubiquitous globally, have also played a vital role in the provision of inexpensive and abundant healing agents, most especially in coun- tries where there are economic challenges [5]. Some of the *Corresponding author: Agbaje Lateef, Laboratory of Industrial arthropods’ natural agents include bee venom contain- Microbiology and Nanobiotechnology, Nanotechnology Research ing varieties of peptides, including adolapin, mast-cell Group (NANO+), Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, PMB 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria, degrading peptide, melittin, phospholipase, and non- e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] peptide compounds, which all have useful applications Sunday A. Ojo and Joseph A. Elegbede: Laboratory of Industrial in the treatment of cancer [6–8], control of diabetes [9], Microbiology and Nanobiotechnology, Department of Pure and treatment of neurodegenerative disease [10], treatment of Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, PMB free radical-mediated disease [11], and treatment against 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria HIV infection [12]. 602 A. Lateef et al.: Roles of arthropods in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles It was also reported that enzymes such as chymot- period without losing its viability. Its life span is esti- rypsin, serine proteases, metalloproteinase, and aspartyl mated to be 10 times more than that of the workers (i.e. proteinase produced by maggots (larvae of Lucilia sericata, 1–2 years) [47]. Lucilia cuprina, Calliphora vicina, and Phormia regina) There are a million neurons found in the honey bee play important roles in the healing of diabetic foot wound, (four times as much as that of Drosophila but five orders postoperative infections, leg ulcers, and bed sores [13–16]. of magnitude less than that of humans) according to Furthermore, defensin, an enzyme produced by house flies Witthöft et al. [48]. Honey bees have the ability to learn alongside other factors, played an important role as an abstract concept, which may be “same” or “different” antibacterial agent against the methicillin-resistant Staph- [49]. They are holometabolous organisms belonging to ylococcus aureus (MRSA) and the vancomycin-resistant the same insect order (Hymenoptera) as species of ants, enterococci [17, 18]. Cantharidin, a toxin produced from the sawflies, and wasps. The male bees arise from unfertilized bodies of several species of blister beetles, has also been haploid eggs, whereas the females arise from fertilized found as a useful therapeutic agent. It has also been used diploid eggs; hence, they exhibit haplodiploid sex deter- for the removal of warts [19], treatment of cancer [20–26], mination [50, 51]. The suggested geographical regions and prevention of apoptosis and DNA damage [27]. Polybia where A. mellifera originated are Africa [45], Middle East MPI, a novel antimicrobial peptide present in the venom of [52], and Asia [53], and these creatures were reportedly social wasp (Polybia paulista), was reported to be capable carried by humans to all other parts of the world because of cell membrane disruption and has also played a vital of their ability to make honey [53]. role in cancer therapy [28, 29]. Nanotechnology has continued to receive great attrac- tions because of its widespread applications in different aspects of life endeavors. It is a subject that cuts across 3 Bee honey different fields of science and technology. The quest for For many centuries, honey as a natural product of honey nanomaterials that are environmentally benign, cost- bee, is renowned as a sweetening agent of mankind and is effective, and nature-friendly has led to the green (bio- also considered as one of the healthiest foods ever known. logical) synthesis of metal nanoparticles (MeNPs) with the Honey is composed of fructose and glucose as well as amino size range of 1–100 nm, and it is an attractive alternative to acids that help nourish the body and has been a subject of physical and chemical protocols. Several biological agents extensive study all over the world in terms of their physico- including bacteria, fungi, plants, enzymes, and extracts chemical properties, mineral content, vitamins, and quality have been used for the biological synthesis of MeNPs control [54–58]. According to Philip [59], it was reported that [30–43]. However, there are few reports on the biological the high energy, chemical constituent, vitamins, enzymes, synthesis of MeNPs using metabolites of the arthropods. and important minerals such as potassium and magnesium This article therefore seeks to review the involvement of found in the honey help to elongate the life span of man. several arthropods in the green synthesis of MeNPs as well Honey plays an important role in the repair and regenera- as their various practical applications. tion of tissues. For instance, the 5.8-kDa of honey compo- nent isolated by Tonks et al. [60] was reported to induce the production of tumor necrosis factor-α cytokines via TLR4 in 2 Honey bee human monocyte cultures, which enhanced the repair and regeneration of damaged tissue. In this modern age, Apis mellifera, which is commonly There are also several reports on the use of honey in called western honey bee, remains one of the few species the treatment of wound infections, bedsores, and burns having a considerable social impact [44]. As one of the [61]. In addition, the boundaries of knowledge of bees and “eusocial” colonies of insects, honey bees are distin- their honey have been further extended as a result of their guished into two castes, the queen and the worker. The contributions to the advancement of nanotechnology. Fol- queen (usually one per colony) has the ability to pro- lowing the necessity for safe, ecologically benign, and create, whereas the workers amass food, take care of cost-effective natural agents in the synthesis of MeNPs, the young ones, construct the nest, and also secure the bees and bee honey have been used to mediate the bio- colony. Social evolution has provided the honey bee with synthesis of various MeNPs such as silver (Ag), gold (Au), unique characteristics [45, 46]. The queen is capable of cerium oxide (CeO), palladium (Pd), and copper oxide laying up to 2000 eggs in a day and store sperm for a long (Cu2O) nanoparticles (Table 1). Table 1: Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using metabolites of arthropods Metabolites Reaction conditions Type of nanoparticles Size (nm) Shape Applications References Bee honey 1 ml of the honey solution (1 g/100 ml Silver (Ag) – – Antibacterial [5] distilled water) + ammonium solution/1 mm AgNO3 (1:2); 37°C (200 rpm); 24–72 h Bee honey 15 ml of honey solution + 1 mm AgNO3; Silver (Ag) 4 Spherical – [59] pH 8.5 Bee honey 10 ml honey solution + 30 ml HAuCl4; Gold (Au) 15 Spherical – [62] stirred; 3 h Honey bee Phosphate buffer treated ground bee Silver (Ag) 12–18 Spherical Treatment of colon cancer [63] (pH 7, 25 mm) + 1 mm AgNO3 + glucose; incubation (room temperature), 220 rpm A. Lateef et al.: Roles of arthropods in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles metallic of synthesis inthegreen arthropods of Roles et al.: A.