Men at the Margins: Ceasefire, Liberalization, and Masculinity at the Indian Frontier by Matthew Wilkinson A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Social Sciences Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences 2020 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Wilkinson First name: Matthew Abbreviation for degree as given in the PhD University calendar: School: School of Social Sciences Faculty: Arts and Social Sciences Men at the Margins: Ceasefire, Liberalization, and Title: Masculinity at the Indian Frontier Abstract (350 words only) This thesis examines men’s experiences of change during a prolonged ceasefire in the state of Nagaland, India, following decades of armed conflict. Nagaland’s conflict has had an immense impact on life in the state. Conflict is a source of economic stagnation, state dysfunction, and has encouraged the preservation and maintenance of a rigidly gendered social order that frames Naga men as guardians and protectors of Naga territory, culture and society from outside intruders. However, following ceasefires signed in the late 1990s and early 2000s, immense changes are taking place in Nagaland. The frontier state is becoming more economically incorporated and politically integrated with India, and a younger generation of Nagas have greatly different experiences with the Indian state than their elders. In light of these changes, the rigidly gendered model of Naga society is subject to new questions and new challenges. In this thesis, I ask ‘how do men in Nagaland experience ceasefire and its associated changes?’ Through ethnographic fieldwork involving interviews and observations made throughout the state this thesis reaches three conclusions. First, that ceasefire in Nagaland is conducive to a number of wider social changes that extend well beyond the immediate goals of the ceasefire. Second, that liberalization at the post-conflict frontier is marginalizing for certain groups of men in ways that are obscured by the presence of patriarchal customary institutions in the frontier. Third, that changes associated with ceasefire and liberalization at the post-conflict frontier are conducive to a patriarchal backlash against migrants and Naga women agitating for change. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). Signature Witness Signature Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: 2 3 4 SUPERVISOR STATEMENT I hereby certify that all co-authors of the published or submitted papers agree to Matthew Wilkinson submitting those papers as part of his Doctoral Thesis. Signed …………………………………………….............. Dr Nicholas Apoifis Date …………………………………………….............. 14/09/2020 5 Abstract This thesis examines men’s experiences of change during a prolonged ceasefire in the state of Nagaland, India, following decades of armed conflict. Nagaland’s conflict has had an immense impact on life in the state. Conflict is a source of economic stagnation, state dysfunction, and has encouraged the preservation and maintenance of a rigidly gendered social order that frames Naga men as guardians and protectors of Naga territory, culture and society from outside intruders. However, following ceasefires signed in the late 1990s and early 2000s, immense changes are taking place in Nagaland. The frontier state is becoming more economically incorporated and politically integrated with India, and a younger generation of Nagas have greatly different experiences with the Indian state than their elders. In light of these changes, the rigidly gendered model of Naga society is subject to new questions and new challenges. In this thesis, I ask ‘how do men in Nagaland experience ceasefire and its associated changes?’ Through ethnographic fieldwork involving interviews and observations made throughout the state this thesis reaches three conclusions. First, that ceasefire in Nagaland is conducive to a number of wider social changes that extend well beyond the immediate goals of the ceasefire. Second, that liberalization at the post-conflict frontier is marginalizing for certain groups of men in ways that are obscured by the presence of patriarchal customary institutions in the frontier. Third, that changes associated with ceasefire and liberalization at the post-conflict frontier are conducive to a patriarchal backlash against migrants and Naga women agitating for change. 6 Acknowledgements Producing this thesis has been a monumental task, and a number of people have lent me their time and energy while writing this. First and foremost, an immense thanks is owed to my supervisor, mentor, and friend, Professor Duncan McDuie-Ra. Your work and your words have encouraged my initial journeys to Nagaland and have been a constant boost to my own confidence. This thesis would not exist without your input, guidance, and friendship. Second, thank you Dr. Tanya Jakimow for the hours you have spent thoroughly reading this thesis, and your detailed feedback and support throughout my candidature. Your input has moulded this thesis into a more coherent whole, and has greatly improved my own writing. Thank you also to Dr. Dolly Kikon. Dolly, your work with women in Nagaland is an inspiration, and as I spoke with men in Nagaland I hoped that I was doing justice to your efforts unpacking gender, society, and culture in Nagaland. Dr. Xonxoi Barbora, you threatened to lock me in a room if I did not write enough, and that was a huge motivator for completing this thesis. Thank you to my two late-stage supervisors Dr. Nicholas Apoifis and Dr. Andy Kaladelfos. Nick, you taught me to be bolder and braver in my writing, and Andy, you helped see this thesis through to the end. Thank you as well to some key academics, friends, and colleagues have helped me along the way. These people have lent me their thoughts, opinions, and in many cases have put food in my stomach and a roof over my head - my co-supervisor Professor Kama Maclean, Dr. Susanne Schmeidl, Dr. Colin Clark, Rita Kutchevskis-Hayes, Dr. Dominic Fitzsimmons, Dr. Jamie Roberts. Thank you also to the North East Social Research Centre in Guwahati, and the Don Bosco Centre at Karghuli, for giving me a space to work and sleep as I wrote 7 the final parts of this thesis. An immense tike ase, moi bishi kuchi paishei to my close friends in Nagaland and in Assam. You’ve let me into your homes and into your lives as I have written this, and this thesis is a product of the start, not the end, of our adventures together. Akang Longchar, Aren Longchar, aunty Carole, Aheli Moitra, Dr. Lula Longchar, Bona, Wabang, Mar Longkumer, Dr. Lanu Jamir, Joel Naga and your family, Dr. Anwesha Dutta, Aotemjen Jamir, Imli Walling, Imu, Sashi and your brothers, Temjen Aier, Pongmai Konyak, Akum Longchari, Kaka Iralu. Yangti Walling, Ngapkao, Acho, Horace, and Zoe. Naro, and Yanger. Dr. Michael Heneise and your family. Monalisa Changkija. Atet and Apen. The mysterious Samson Thur. Finally, little Niksunger this one’s for you! 8 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................ 6 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 7 Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 11 ‘The Nagaland State Co-operative Bank Ltd. Welcome You to Nagaland’ ..................... 11 Statement of Problem ................................................................................................. 19 Research Aims ............................................................................................................. 22 Thesis .......................................................................................................................... 24 Contributions .............................................................................................................. 25 Outline ........................................................................................................................ 29 Chapter 2: Men & Masculinities, Frontier, Conflict ............................................... 34 Outline ........................................................................................................................ 34 Men and Masculinities ................................................................................................ 35 Frontier ......................................................................................................................