BUILDING FROM AND MOVING BEYOND THE STATE BUILDING FROM AND MOVING BEYOND THE STATE: THE NATIONAL AND TRANSNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF AFRO-BRAZILIAN WOMEN’S INTERSECTIONAL MOBILIZATION By JESSICA H. FRANKLIN, B.A., M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctorate of Philosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Jessica H. Franklin, August 2012 McMaster University DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY (2012) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: Building From and Moving Beyond the State: The National and Transnational Dimensions of Afro-Brazilian Women’s Intersectional Mobilization AUTHOR: Jessica H. Franklin, M.A. (The University of Western Ontario) SUPERVISOR: Professor Karen Bird NUMBER OF PAGES: vii, 233 ii ABSTRACT Race and gender categories have rarely operated in isolation in the lives of Afro-Brazilian women, intersecting to shape their historical and social positioning, everyday experiences, and collective activism. Despite opposition from the Brazilian state and some civil society groups, the Afro-Brazilian women’s movement has increased awareness of the specificity of black women’s identities and oppressions. They have become one of Brazil’s most organized proponents of anti-discrimination policy and legislation. In recent years their activism has moved beyond Brazil’s borders through participation in United Nations (UN) Conferences. Yet, the dynamism of Afro-Brazilian women’s intersectional identities and their strategic use to gain legitimacy in these arenas has remained noticeably understudied. This dissertation argues that since activist groups do not participate in transnational forums detached from their specific histories and localized experiences, their actions, and strategies must be historically grounded. It draws upon the major arguments of postcolonial feminism, intersectionality, and the political process model to examine how national and transnational processes have shaped the identity articulations and mobilization strategies of Afro- Brazilian women activists. Four distinct processes operating in and outside of Brazil are identified as critical to the identity positions, strategies, and overall trajectory of the Afro- Brazilian women’s movement: colonialism, slavery, democratic transition, and preparations for and proceedings of UN Conferences. The outcomes of this mobilization in terms of the influence of Afro-Brazilian women activists in domestic policy domains and internal movement dynamics are also explored. The result is a comprehensive analysis of the intricate workings of race and gender categories in activist spaces and the multiple historical and contextual factors which shape their configuration, intersection, and impact. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation is a testament to what can be accomplished with faith, persistence, and an amazing support system. I am extremely grateful to the members of my supervisory committee, Dr. Karen Bird, Dr. Robert O’Brien, and Dr. Nibaldo Galleguillos, for the wealth of knowledge, compassion, and guidance they provided over the course of my doctoral studies. I especially appreciate the insight and encouragement offered by my supervisor, Karen. Your positive feedback and challenging queries continually motivated me to produce my best work. Seeing a friendly face in the Department of Political Science always lifted my spirits during this demanding process. Special thanks goes to Carolina Aguiar, Mark Busser, Amanda Coles, Manuela Dozzi, Greg Flynn, Kathleen Hannan, Heather Johnson, Aine Leadbetter, Jessica Merolli, Namwaka Omari, Alina Sajed, and Marcela Veccihone for offering a listening ear, a piece of advice or a laugh. The external fieldwork required for this project would not have been possible without the Center for Afro-Oriental Studies at the Federal University of Bahia and the financial support of the Canada-Latin America and the Caribbean Research Exchange Grant and the Institute on Globalization and the Human Condition at McMaster University. I am also deeply indebted to the Afro-Brazilian women activists, researchers, and NGO representatives who shared their stories so openly. Their trials and triumphs in the fight against discrimination inspired me to undertake this project and reinforced the power of women to change this world. A heartfelt thanks goes to my parents and brothers who have always been my greatest role models and cheerleaders. Your encouraging words and prayers carried me to the finish line. Last, but certainly not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Andrew, who stood by me in the most trying moments of this journey and never wavered in his belief in me and this work. Your unconditional love and support means more than you will ever know. This victory is ours. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Why Race and Gender? 4 Theoretical Tools and Underpinnings 8 Key Moments in Brazil’s Political History 15 Socioeconomic Disparities and Political Exclusions of Afro-Brazilian Women 21 The Objectives and Expansion of the Afro-Brazilian Women’s Movement 27 Methodological Considerations 28 Chapter Outline 34 CHAPTER TWO: EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK: IDENTITIES, INTERSECTIONS, AND OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURES 38 Postcolonial Feminism: Core Premises and Contributions 40 Intersectionality as Political Strategy 48 Political Process Model: Identifying Political Opportunity Structures 54 Conclusion 66 CHAPTER THREE: OPPRESSIONS STEEPED IN HISTORY: AFRO-BRAZILIAN WOMEN IN COLONIAL NARRATIVES AND NATIONAL IDEOLOGIES 68 Slavery and the Colour Continuum 70 Post Abolition Dynamics and the Power of the Foreigner’s Gaze 78 Identity in Crisis: The Mae Preta and Mulata in the Myth of Racial Democracy 83 Conclusion 92 CHAPTER FOUR: AXES OF ENTRY AND EXCLUSION: CHARTING THE COURSE OF THE AFRO-BRAZILIAN WOMEN’S MOVEMENT 1975-1995 94 Afro-Brazilian Women in Black and Feminist Movements 98 Gender as an Axis of Entry: Brazil’s Democratic Transition and the Autonomous Organization of Afro-Brazilian Women 110 Grappling with (Counter)Hegemonic Spaces: Afro-Brazilian Women and Latin American and Caribbean Feminist Encounters 121 Conclusion 128 CHAPTER FIVE: CREATING OUR OWN BENCHMARKS: THE AFRO-BRAZILIAN WOMEN’S MOVEMENT AT BEIJING AND DURBAN 131 Key Moments at the UN before Beijing 134 Afro-Brazilian Women and the Beijing Conference Process 135 v Afro-Brazilian Women and the Durban Conference Process 145 Conclusion 159 CHAPTER SIX: TRANSFORMATIONS FROM WITHIN: OUTCOMES OF THE AFRO-BRAZILIAN WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN THE POST-DURBAN ERA 161 Social Policy Initiatives in Brazil 165 Intersectionality in Brazilian Reproductive Health Care Policy 173 Transnational Coalitions and Networks 179 Internal Movement Dynamics 186 Conclusion 195 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION 197 APPENDIX 211 REFERENCE LIST 214 vi LIST OF ALL ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS AMB Brazilian Women’s Articulation AMNB Network for Black Brazilian Women’s NGOs CECF Sao Paulo’s State Council on the Feminine Condition CFEMEA Feminist Center for Research and Advisory Studies CNDM National Council on the Rights of Women CNPIR National Council of Racial Equality Promotion DFID Department for International Development FNB Black Brazilian Front GALCI Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative IBGE Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics IACHR Inter-American Commission of Human Rights IBASE Brazilian Institute on Social and Economic Analysis IGO International Governmental Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IR International Relations ISI Import Substitution Industrialization IWY International Women’s Year MNU Unified Black Movement NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIREMA Interdisciplinary Center for African Descendant Research and Heritage NSM New Social Movements PAISM Program of Integral Assistance for Women’s Health PT Brazilian Workers’ Party SEPPIR Special Secretariat for Promotion of Policies on Racial Equality TEN Black Experimental Theater UN United Nations UNESCO United National Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UNDP United Nations Development Programme vii Ph. D. Thesis – J. Franklin; McMaster University – Political Science. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The adage “a watershed event” is often used to describe the significance of the 2001 United Nations (UN) Conference on Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance that took place in Durban, South Africa, for the Afro-Brazilian1 women’s movement (Flynn and Mikevis 2005; Turner 2002). Afro-Brazilian women activists were at the helm of national and regional conference preparations and were well represented among Brazil’s Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) delegation. In addition, long-time movement activist and founder of the Afro-Brazilian women’s organization Fala Preta! (Speak Black Woman!), Edna Roland, served as the Conference’s General Rapporteur. It was the first time a Brazilian woman of African descent had been nominated and selected for the position. The capacity of this UN Conference and its preparatory processes—the first in the post-apartheid era to characterize racism as a global dilemma and to incorporate the concept of intersectionality into policy deliberations and resolutions—to shape and strengthen a movement that faced tremendous exclusions in the domestic context has not 1 The term Afro-Brazilian has recently emerged as a form of individual and collective identification in Brazil. Prior to the 1990s, individuals primarily identified themselves based on their skin colour in Brazil. Preta