EXPLORING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF PLACE: A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNITY-BASED NATURE TOURISM A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Guelph by JOY SAMMY In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May, 2010 © Joy Sammy, 2010 Library and Archives Bibliothèque et ?F? 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While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. ¦+¦ Canada ABSTRACT EXPLORING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF PLACE: A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNITY-BASED NATURE TOURISM Joy Sammy Advisor: University of Guelph, 2010 Professor D. Reid Sustainable development which integrates conservation and development has proven to be a very complicated issue; how do we humans manage our use of the environment in such a way that does not only decrease human poverty but also encourages human development while at the same time protecting and restoring biodiversity and the life-sustaining functions of ecosystems for ourselves and other species now and in the future? One approach that aims to do just that is community- based nature tourism (CBNT). CBNT aims to address the multiple demands of conservation and development encompassing the desire to link conservation and local livelihoods through tourism by providing an economic alternative to destructive habits, preserving biodiversity whilst reducing rural poverty, and of achieving both objectives on a sustainable, self-financing basis. CBNT, however does not occur in a vacuum but takes place in diverse communities that may already have strong natural resource management systems that dictate how individuals interact with nature through cultural norms and traditional beliefs and values. This dissertation presents a new conceptual framework, Political Ecological Place Systems (PEPS) and uses this framework to examine how human-environment interactions change as communities move from traditional forms of conservation to alternative forms such as CBNT through a case study of the Boabeng- Fiema Monkey Sanctuary, Ghana. Field research was conducted from May 2007 to Feb 2008, multiple sources of evidence were used including interviews, archival, NGO, academic and government documents, direct and participant observation, focus groups, a household survey and map data. It was found that tourism activities are unevenly distributed and that this fact in combination with local history has created two distinct and diverging 'places' within the sanctuary. The divergence of place has impacted the ability of the communities to work together to achieve sustainable conservation and development. Theoretically, PEPS also reveals that place transformations occur through changes in layers and focal points on different scales and that socio-natural systems operate through a system of change. Sustainability within a PEPS framework is shown to require place resiliency. Acknowledgments The completion of my doctoral degree would not have been possible without the academic support of my dissertation committee. I would like to thank Professor Alan Watson, Dr. Alice Hovorka and Dr. Ricardo Ramirez and in particular my advisor Dr. Donald Reid for the guidance he provided. I would like to thank Dr. FitzGibbon for help in the GIS lab and the staff at the Data Resource Centre. I would also like to thank the Social Science and Humanities Research Council and the University of Guelph for financial assistance. In Ghana, my field research would not have been possible without the assistance and technical support of the: Ghana Wildlife Division, Ghana Tourism Board, FFRT Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Sunyani), Geography Department of the University of Ghana (Legon), and the Nature Conservation Research Centre. In particular I would like to express my gratitude to the members of the Nature Conservation Research Centre for their expertise and insight. I would like to thank the communities of Boabeng and Fiema especially my research assistants. I am honored to have shared in the lives of the people of Boabeng and Fiema. Medasi paaaa! I would also like to thank my Ghanaian family both in Accra and in the north for making Ghana home. Finally, I would like to thank with all my heart my friends and family! This has been a long adventure and I would not have been able to make it through without your continual support. You give me strength and inspiration and the foundation that I stand on. I am only able to explore this world because of the home you always provide for me. Thank-you! i Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction 1 .0 Introduction to Research Problem 1 1 .0. 1 Research Goal and Objectives 3 1 . 1 Historical and Conceptual Themes 5 1.1.1 Rural Development 6 1.1.2 Natural Resource Management and Conservation 9 1.1.3 Tourism Development 1 2 1.2 CBNT: an integrated approach 14 1.2.1 Problems associated with CBNT 1 7 1.3 Summary 19 Chapter Two: Literature Review 2 . 0 Introduction 2 1 2.1 Conceptual assumptions and inconsistencies 21 2.1.1 What is community? 2 1 2.1.2 Conservation of what? 24 2.1.3 What is conservation for? 26 2.1.4 Tourism: economics or empowerment? 32 2.1.5 Sustainability: goal or process? 35 2.2 Exploring Theory: towards an alternative conceptual framework 37 2.2.1 Systems Theory 40 a) The system is a non-summative whole 42 b) The system is self-organising or adaptive 42 c) The system is open 44 d) The system is homeostatic 44 e) Systems Theory: limitations 45 2.2.2 Political Ecology 46 a) Themes and Avenues: conflict and environmental transformation 46 b) The approach: scale, environmental change and power 51 c) Limitations of political ecology 54 2.2.3 Place-based Theory 54 a) Community, Landscape and Values: place meanings 57 b) Place and Tourism 58 c) Limitations of place-based theory 60 2.3 Alternative Conceptual Framework: Political Ecological Place Systems 61 (PEPS) Chapter Three: Research Methodology 3.0 Introduction 67 3.1 Theoretical Perspective: Critical Realism 67 3.2 Research Approach: case study and triangulation 72 p 3.3 Data Collection (June 2007 and September 2007 to January 2008) 73 3.3. 1 Preliminary Preparations and Introductory Period 74 3.3.2 Direct and Participant Observation 75 3.3.3 Compound Survey 76 3.3.4 Participant Interviews 78 3.3.5 Focus Groups 79 3.3.6 Participant Mapping 8 1 3.4 Sample 81 3.5 Recording and Presenting Data 82 3.6 Ethical Considerations 83 3.7 Data Analysis 84 3.7.1 Qualitative Data Analysis 84 3.7.2 Quantitative Data Analysis 87 3.8 Summary 88 Chapter Four: Context for Case Study Area 4.0 Introduction 89 4.0.1 Pre Colonial Ghana 89 4.0.2 Colonialism to Independence 90 4. 1 Current Context of Ghana 94 4.1.1 Environment and Conservation 94 4. 1 .2 Religion and Land 99 4.1.3 Tourism and Development 1 03 4.2 Context: Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary 104 4.2.1 Culture and Environment 105 4.2.2 Historical Context of Boabeng and Fiema 111 a) History of Daworoh 1 1 3 b) History of the Stools of Boabeng 115 c) History of Fiema and Abudwo 117 4.2.3 Traditional Belief and Practices 120 a) Monkey Burial Ceremony 120 b) Taboos 120 4.2.4 Tourism at BFMS 122 4.3 Summary 126 Chapter Five: Analysis and Results 5.0 Introduction 128 5.1 Human-Environment Interactions: socio-ecological impact of CBNT 128 5.1.1 Agriculture 129 a) Access to farmland 129 b) Encroachment 133 5.1.2 Access to Natural Resources 138 a) Firewood and Water 1 39 b) Medicinal Plants 140 iii e) Food Stuffs and Household Materials 142 5.1.3 Traditional Environmental Interactions 147 a) Monkey Feeding and Interactions 147 5.1.4 Conservation 1 49 a) Perceptions of the Forest and Conservation 149 b) Conservation and Tourism 158 5.2 Socio-political Interactions 164 5.2. 1 Current impacts of CBNT and future development goals 1 64 a) Benefits of CBNT 164 b) Problems associated