CHEMICAL WARFARE The use of chemical agents in warfare goes back to ancient times. Early chemical weapons included smoke and poisons; more recent weapons include chlorine gas, mustard gas, napalm and nerve agents. Chemical agents may be delivered by a variety of methods including bombs, spray tanks, rockets, missiles, land mines and artillery projectiles. Chemical warfare requires access to or the ability to make the materials, delivery systems that can be used in different battle situations, plans for safely handling the weapons, and self-protective measures. Because of the cumbersome and uncomfortable protective clothing that personnel must wear to defend against chemical weapons, the mere threat of chemical agents can greatly reduce military effectiveness. In 1974, the United States signed the Geneva Protocol of 1925 that bans the use of poisonous substances in war; and in 1992 signed the Chemical Weapons Convention. The signatories of this treaty agree to stop producing chemical weapons and to destroy all of their existing stockpiles. To date, the U.S. has destroyed almost half of its chemical weapon stockpiles. Classes of chemical weapons. There are three classes of chemical weapons: 1. Smoke. Smoke has taken on a new military significance in recent years, because it is an effective defense against laser and optically guided munitions. a. Vaporized oil. A simple way to make smoke is to inject oil onto a hot exhaust manifold and then let the oil recondense as small droplets. b. HC. HC is a mixture containing grained aluminum, zinc oxide and hexachloroethane. HC is used in grenades, candles and artillery shells. 1 c. White phosphorous. White phosphorous (WP), which burns when it comes in contact with air, produces P2O5. Artillery shells filled with WP are also used for their incendiary (fire- causing) effect. 2. Flame weapons. a. Oils. The most familiar incendiary, napalm, is merely gasoline or a similar fuel, to which a detergent-like thickener is added. Thickener is used to slow the burning, improve clinging properties, and cause the fuel to rebound off walls and go around corners. b. Metals. Thermite is the major metal incendiary. It is essentially a mixture of powdered iron oxide and granular aluminum. The casing of a thermite bomb is often made of magnesium, which is highly flammable, burning with a hot, white flame that can serve to ignite the thermite mixture. 3. Toxic agents. Toxic agents are classified into four groups depending on their action. Less toxic agents are also used for riot control (see section V). I. Blister Agents Agents that cause blisters on skin and damage the respiratory tract, mucous membranes, and eyes. Name Physical Characteristics Persistency2 Commercial Uses of Chemicals or Precursor Chemicals3 Paper and rubber manufacturing, Sulfur Mustard Colorless to amber, oily liquid Persistent pharmaceuticals, insecticides, plastics, (HD) with odor of garlic detergents, cosmetics, lubricants Light amber liquid with odor of Lewisite Semi-persistent Ceramics, insecticides, pharmaceuticals geraniums Nitrogen Toiletries, insecticides, waxes, polishes, Amber, odorless liquid Persistent Mustard (HN-3)4 lubricants, cosmetics Paper and rubber manufacturing, Mustard- Liquid with garlic odor Semi-persistent pharmaceuticals, insecticides, plastics, Lewisite (HL) detergents, cosmetics, ceramics, lubricants Phosgene oxime Colorless liquid or crystalling Relatively non- (CX) solid with a disagreeable odor persistent II. Nerve Agents Lethal substances that disable enzymes responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses. Name (Symbol) Physical Characteristics Persistency2 Commercial Uses of Chemicals or Precursor Chemicals3 Brownish to colorless liquid Insecticides, gasoline additives, detergents, Tabun (GA) with odor ranging from none to Persistent missile fuel, plastics, dyes, and pigments fruity Colorless liquid with almost no Fire retardants, insecticides, disinfectants, paint Sarin (GB) Non-persistent odor solvents, ceramics, optical brighteners Colorless liquid with fruity to Fire retardants, paint solvents, ceramics, Soman (GD) Semi-persistent camphor like odor disinfectants, textile softeners Insecticides, pyrotechnics, textile softeners, VX Amber liquid with no odor Persistent pharmaceuticals Novichok Unknown Unknown Fertilizers, pesticides agents5 2 III. Choking Agents Substances that damage respiratory tract, causing extensive fluid build-up in the lungs. Name (Symbol) Physical Characteristics Persistency2 Commercial Uses of Chemicals or Precursor Chemicals3 Colorless to slightly yellow Disinfectants, plastics, pesticides, solvents, Chlorine Non-persistent with sharp, irritating odor chemical synthesis Colorless gas with odor of Phosgene (CG) Non-persistent Plastics, pesticides, dyes, and herbicides freshly mown hay, or corn Diphosgene Colorless liquid with odor of Non-persistent Plastics, pesticides, dyes, and herbicides (DP) corn or freshly mown hay Chloropicrin Oily, colorless liquid with Non-persistent Disinfectant, chemical synthesis (PS) pungent odor IV. Blood Agents Agents that interfere with the absorption of oxygen into the bloodstream. Name (Symbol) Physical Characteristics Persistency2 Commercial Uses of Chemicals or Precursor Chemicals3 Hydrogen Colorless gas with odor of bitter Pesticides, fumigating, electroplating, gold and Non-persistent Cyanide (AC) almonds silver extraction Cyanogen Colorless liquid with sharp, Non-persistent Dyes and pigments, nylon production Chloride (CK) pungent odor V. Riot Control (Incapacitating) Agents6 Substances that rapidly produce temporary disabling effects. Name (Symbol) Physical Characteristics Persistency2 Commercial Uses of Chemicals or Precursor Chemicals3 Tear Agent 2 Colorless, gray solid with sharp, Non-persistent Commercially available as mace (CN) irritating, floral odor Tear Agent O White crystalline substance Non-persistent (CS) with pepper-like odor Psychedelic White crystalline solid with no Non-persistent Pharmaceuticals, tranquilizers Agent 3 (BZ) odor 1. Sources: Central Intelligence Agency, The Chemical and Biological Warfare Threat (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995); Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks, OTA-ISC-559 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993); Valerie Adams, Chemical Warfare, Chemical Disarmament (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990); Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare Volume I The Rise of CB Weapons (New York: Humanities Press, 1971); Chemical Weapons Convention Verification: Handbook on Scheduled Chemicals (August 1993); Gordon Burck and Charles Floweree, International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation ( New York: Greenwood Press, 1991); U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Medicine, Detailed Chemical Fact Sheets, Office to the Deputy for Technical Services, last updated 23 July 1998; Iraqi Weapons of Mass Destruction Programs (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 13 February 1998); Edward M. Spiers, Chemical Warfare (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Robert E. Boyle, U.S. Chemical Warfare: A Historical Perspective, (Albuquerque, N.M.: Sandia National Laboratories, August 1998) 2. Persistency refers to the length of time that contact and inhalation effects of an agent remain operative (Burck & Floweree) 3. Precursors are chemicals changed by reaction to make a chemical warfare agent. 4. In total, three nitrogen mustard agents were developed. The first, HN-1, explored in the late 1920s and early 1930s, was originally designed as a pharmaceutical product. HN-2 followed as a military agent, but later transitioned into the pharmeutical realm. HN-3 was the last of the nitrogen mustards to be developed. These charts focus on HN-3 because its formidable blistering capabilities approach sulfur mustard (HD). 5. For more information regarding novichok agents, refer to Vil Mirzayanov's "Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex: An Insider's View," Chemical Weapons Disarmament in Russia: Problems and Prospects (Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, 1995). 6. Riot control agents listed are a partial representation of existing incapacitating agents. Other agents currently stockpiled around the world for law enforcement purposes can cause vomiting and irritation of the skin, among other symptoms. 3 Chemical agent detection and protection. Personnel at risk of exposure to chemical weapons are provided with personal chemical defense equipment that includes protective clothing (mask, battle dress overgarment, gloves and boots), decontamination kits, and detection devices. The exact nature of these items will vary according to the perceived threat. The simplest detection devices are specially-treated paper and tape strips that are worn on the outer clothing (M8 paper and M9 tape). The M8 paper can be used to identify suspected liquid toxins as either a persistent or nonpersistent nerve agent or a blister agent. M9 paper can detect the presence of liquid agents but cannot distinguish between them. More sophisticated detectors, such as the Chemical Agent Monitor (CAM) and the M8A1 Chemical agent alarm can detect nerve and blister agents as vapors. These detectors use radioactive isotopes to generate alpha or beta-particles that will ionize airborne agents drawn into the unit by a pump. The ions are analyzed according to their mass and charge by a built-in microprocessor. CAM reports both the identity and the approximate