Some Important Scientific Advancements Palash Sarkar Applied Statistics Unit Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata India [email protected] Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 1 / 26 Advancements to be Discussed Fundamental primitive inventions. Fire and wheel. Biological sciences. Pharmacology and Human Anatomy. Theory of evolution. Genetics Physical sciences. Atomic theory. Periodic table. Atomic structure. Chaos. Communication. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 2 / 26 Advancements to be Discussed Fundamental primitive inventions. Fire and wheel. Biological sciences. Pharmacology and Human Anatomy. Theory of evolution. Genetics Physical sciences. Atomic theory. Periodic table. Atomic structure. Chaos. Communication. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 2 / 26 Advancements to be Discussed Fundamental primitive inventions. Fire and wheel. Biological sciences. Pharmacology and Human Anatomy. Theory of evolution. Genetics Physical sciences. Atomic theory. Periodic table. Atomic structure. Chaos. Communication. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 2 / 26 Why? Brush up on general awareness. Interpret developments in terms of theories about science. View connections between subjects at a high level. Possibly obtain some insight into how scientific discoveries are made. Get inspired! Disclaimers. The choice of topics is certainly inadequate. Note: Topics touched upon in earlier talks are omitted. I am not an expert. Sources: Wikipedia, http://inventors.about.com/. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 3 / 26 Why? Brush up on general awareness. Interpret developments in terms of theories about science. View connections between subjects at a high level. Possibly obtain some insight into how scientific discoveries are made. Get inspired! Disclaimers. The choice of topics is certainly inadequate. Note: Topics touched upon in earlier talks are omitted. I am not an expert. Sources: Wikipedia, http://inventors.about.com/. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 3 / 26 Why? Brush up on general awareness. Interpret developments in terms of theories about science. View connections between subjects at a high level. Possibly obtain some insight into how scientific discoveries are made. Get inspired! Disclaimers. The choice of topics is certainly inadequate. Note: Topics touched upon in earlier talks are omitted. I am not an expert. Sources: Wikipedia, http://inventors.about.com/. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 3 / 26 Fundamental Primitive Inventions Fire. Methods to create and control fire is the basic requirement of all further progress. Prometheus: a titan from Greek mythology who gave fire to mortals. Wheel. Movement of heavy objects. Potter’s wheel. But, the Incas had not invented the wheel! Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 4 / 26 Fundamental Primitive Inventions Fire. Methods to create and control fire is the basic requirement of all further progress. Prometheus: a titan from Greek mythology who gave fire to mortals. Wheel. Movement of heavy objects. Potter’s wheel. But, the Incas had not invented the wheel! Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 4 / 26 Biological Sciences Pharmacology and Human Anatomy. Theory of evolution. Genetics Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 5 / 26 Pharmacology and Human Anatomy ‘De Materia Medica’ by Pedanius Dioscorides (circa 40-90 AD). A 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances. Remained in use until about 1600 AD. ‘De humani corporis fabrica’ by Andreas Vesalius (1543). Presents a careful examination of the organs and the complete structure of the human body. A major error: blood flowing through veins is different from that through arteries. William Harvey (1578-1657). Complete and detailed description of the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the body by the heart. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 6 / 26 Pharmacology and Human Anatomy ‘De Materia Medica’ by Pedanius Dioscorides (circa 40-90 AD). A 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances. Remained in use until about 1600 AD. ‘De humani corporis fabrica’ by Andreas Vesalius (1543). Presents a careful examination of the organs and the complete structure of the human body. A major error: blood flowing through veins is different from that through arteries. William Harvey (1578-1657). Complete and detailed description of the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the body by the heart. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 6 / 26 Pharmacology and Human Anatomy ‘De Materia Medica’ by Pedanius Dioscorides (circa 40-90 AD). A 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances. Remained in use until about 1600 AD. ‘De humani corporis fabrica’ by Andreas Vesalius (1543). Presents a careful examination of the organs and the complete structure of the human body. A major error: blood flowing through veins is different from that through arteries. William Harvey (1578-1657). Complete and detailed description of the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the body by the heart. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 6 / 26 Theory of Evolution An explanation of how diversity arises in living organisms. Evolution: change over time in inherited traits of living organisms. Traits: distinguishing features, such as anatomical, biochemical or behavioural features. Evolution arises from variation (due to genetic causes) of traits in a population. Causes of evolution. Natural selection and adaptive evolution: different chances of survival and/or reproduction of organisms that differ in one or more inherited traits. Genetic drift: differences in inherited traits arising from random genetic changes – neutral theory of evolution. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 7 / 26 Theory of Evolution An explanation of how diversity arises in living organisms. Evolution: change over time in inherited traits of living organisms. Traits: distinguishing features, such as anatomical, biochemical or behavioural features. Evolution arises from variation (due to genetic causes) of traits in a population. Causes of evolution. Natural selection and adaptive evolution: different chances of survival and/or reproduction of organisms that differ in one or more inherited traits. Genetic drift: differences in inherited traits arising from random genetic changes – neutral theory of evolution. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 7 / 26 Theory of Evolution ‘On the Origin of Species’ by Charles Darwin in 1859. Presented the theory of natural selection in details and provided supporting evidence. In 1858, independent papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace had introduced similar ideas. Darwin was unable to explain the variations in traits for natural selection to work on. Inheritence of acquired characteristics (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck): changes acquired during the life of an organism may be transmitted to offspring (Lamarckism). Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 8 / 26 Theory of Evolution ‘On the Origin of Species’ by Charles Darwin in 1859. Presented the theory of natural selection in details and provided supporting evidence. In 1858, independent papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace had introduced similar ideas. Darwin was unable to explain the variations in traits for natural selection to work on. Inheritence of acquired characteristics (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck): changes acquired during the life of an organism may be transmitted to offspring (Lamarckism). Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 8 / 26 Theory of Evolution Laws of heredity (Gregor Mendel, 1865): traits were inherited in a predictable manner; rediscovered by Hugo Marie de Vries in 1890s. Thomas Hunt Morgan (early 20th century): genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. Population genetics: combination of evolution by natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. Foundational work by Ronald Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 9 / 26 Theory of Evolution Laws of heredity (Gregor Mendel, 1865): traits were inherited in a predictable manner; rediscovered by Hugo Marie de Vries in 1890s. Thomas Hunt Morgan (early 20th century): genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. Population genetics: combination of evolution by natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. Foundational work by Ronald Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 9 / 26 Genetics Proteins are the main building blocks and functional molecules of cells (and life). Protein: sequence of amino acids. There are about 20 natural amino acids. A universal genetic code specifies these amino acids. Codon: 3-letter ‘string’ over {A,T,C,G}. 64 strings and 20 amino acids. Different codons encode the same amino acid. Gene. Unit of heredity. Holds information to build and maintain an organism’s cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. Specifies the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Palash Sarkar (ISI, Kolkata) Important Scientific Advancements 10 / 26 Genetics Proteins are the main building blocks and functional