WAS GEORGIA READY FOR INDEPENDENCE? Paul B. Henze istory cannot be relived, but it is worth have been much slower and both politically and studying for what we can learn from it that can economically more difficult if it had fought to maintain be applied to the present and the future. This a precarious independence. Georgia received more Hessay explores several lines of thought in respect to investment during Russian imperial times than many Georgia's independence, both its frustrated attempt in more distant parts of the empire, including regions of 1918, and its recent successful transition to Russia itself. By the end of the 19th century Georgia independence as a result of the collapse of the Soviet had reached a stage of economic develop- Union. Nothing said here is intended as a definitive ment—spurred by the discovery of oil in neighboring judgment. The purpose of the essay is to stimulate Azerbaijan—that did not differ greatly from that of discussion, debate, and reflection. other southern European countries. The population increased rapidly and the natural vigor of the Georgian Georgia as Part of the Russian Empire people expressed itself in a rapid increase of literacy Georgia's absorption into the Russian Empire was a and flowering of literature and art. Georgia's ancient several-stage process. Russian interest in Georgia cultural traditions made it relatively invulnerable to the began at the end of the 16th century when the tsars most negative features of Russification. There was, of became increasingly concerned with expansion into the course, an oppressive side to Russia's domination of Middle East.1 The Georgian principalities, under Georgia. The Georgian Church lost its independence, pressure from the Ottoman and Persian empires, fell Georgians were required to play a supporting role in into disarray in the 18th century. The united Kingdoms Russian military conquests in the North Caucasus and of Kartli and Kakheti accepted Russian protection in in campaigns against the Ottoman Empire—reinforcing 1783. Less than two decades later protection turned a historic legacy of hostility toward Islam. By the end into absorption.2 During the first quarter of the 19th of the nineteenth century, many Georgians concerned century all Georgian lands became part of the Russian with progress and reform attracted the suspicion of Empire. It was a classic colonial process. Like the tsarist authorities and suffered oppression, prison, and other major states of Europe, Russia invested a great exile. deal of military, political, and economic energy in Nevertheless, as Georgia's population steadily grew, expansion of its colonial empire. the quality of life improved. Infrastructure was greatly The major difference between Russia and other expanded—railroads were built, highways extended, colonial powers was that Russia expanded into electricity introduced. Contacts with Europe increased contiguous territories rather than overseas. This was steadily and were not all mediated through Russia. Georgia's misfortune, but there was also a positive side. During the last four decades of the Russian Empire, As part of a large, modernizing state, Georgia was able Georgia began to attract significant investment from to participate in a process of development that might abroad. As a result of the last Russo-Turkish war in 1876-78, the ancient Georgian region of Ajaria was reunited with Georgia and Batumi soon grew from a sleepy village into a major port linking Georgia to the W.E.D. Allen, Russian Embassies to the Georgian wider world. Kings, 1589-1605 (Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1970), 2 vols. 2 W.E.D. Allen, A History of the Georgian People London: Routledge, 1902). 26 THE HARRIMAN REVIEW Prerequisites for Independence their place in the Russian Empire, taken advantage of Unlike some of the other imperial powers, however, opportunities it offered for cultural and economic Russia did comparatively little to prepare its colonies development, and tended to see Russia as a guarantor for self-administration, let alone independent existence. against designs on the Caucasus which Ottoman Nevertheless, as Russian society became more open Turkey might still harbor. Russia's collapse shocked after the reforms of the mid- and late 19th century, Georgians into realization that their geopolitical Georgia shared in these developments and political situation had drastically changed.5 While the sizable groups began to form. Thus, to the question—Was Georgian aristocracy had become partly Russianized, Georgia ready for independence when the Russian nationalism had grown among the lower classes in Empire collapsed in 1917?—an unequivocal answer Georgia, but the bourgeoisie was still underdeveloped. can be given: yes. Georgia compared favorably with Armenians to a great extent constituted the urban the countries of eastern Europe that became bourgeoisie of Georgia. independent from the 1820s onward—Greece, Serbia, History, Russian divide-and-rule politics, as well as Romania, and Bulgaria, all as a result of European and political and economic evolution during the 19th Russian pressure on the Ottoman Empire; and it also century, laid the basis for potential ethnic problems in compared favorably with those that gained Georgia. None of these was more serious than those independence with the collapse of the Russian and with which newly independent East European countries Austro-Hungarian empires as a result of World War had to contend after World War I: Jews, Ukrainians I—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Lithuanians in Poland; Germans in Poland, and Yugoslavia.3 Czechoslovakia, and Romania; Hungarians in all the Like all these countries, and to a greater degree than countries surrounding truncated Hungary; Turks and some, Georgia had developed politically to the point other Muslims in Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. And if one where it had a lively political life and was capable of compares Georgia in 1918 with the overwhelming self-government. Economically it had reached a level majority of the countries that became independent in of development which could sustain independence and the great wave of decolonization that occurred in the provide the foundation on which increased prosperity two decades after World War II, there can be no doubt and social development could be based. that by these standards Georgia was fully qualified for Psychologically the fast-moving course of events from independence in 1918. March 1917 to the spring of 1918 brought Georgia to a stage where the major portion of its population was Experience in the Soviet Empire enthusiastic about independence and ready to accept But it was not to be. It was Russia that was not the responsibilities of existence as a full-fledged prepared for the independence of any of its colonial member of the international community. possessions. World War I caused three empires to The situation was not clear-cut, of course. Many collapse: the Russian, the Ottoman, and the Austro- factors came into play. I will mention only a few of Hungarian. The evil genius of Lenin brought the them. Russia did not administer Georgia as a national Russian Empire back to life as the Soviet Union, thus entity. Georgians had not thought much about doing great damage to Russia and delaying its evolution independence during the 19th century. The dominant into the modern world by 70 years. Meanwhile Mensheviks until a very late stage of their evolution Austrians and Turks abandoned all thought of saw themselves as part of an all-Russian (and even recreating their empires and concentrated on worldwide) socialist movement for political developing modern nation-states. liberalization and reform.4 Most Georgians had found Destruction of Georgian independence by Russia was accomplished by a combination of conspiracy and military force. Independent Georgia was fortunate in 3 The same comparison can be made in favor of having coherent leadership under Noe Jordania and his Georgia in respect to Middle Eastern countries which became independent from the 1920s to the 1940s: Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq. 4 Ronald G. Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press/Stanford: Hoover 5Firuz Kazemzadeh, The Struggle for Transcaucasia, Institution Press, 1988). 1917-1921 (Oxford: George Arnold,1950). 27 THE HARRIMAN REVIEW colleagues, but the task of steering the country through relationship to the basic interests of Georgia. the conflicting forces that surrounded it at the end of Georgians who were judged enemies of the Soviet World War I was beyond their skill and ingenuity. For system were repeatedly purged, exiled, and killed. a brief period Germany appeared to provide a solution Georgians thus gained no experience in true self- and the period of German occupation of Georgia stands administration or in open political life. They became out as a time of hope. But Germany was in the process skilled in manipulation of the Soviet political system of being defeated. The efforts Germany made at Brest- for temporary advantage, and parallel exploitation of Litovsk to protect Georgia's independence came to the economic system. They learned how to survive. nothing. A century of Russian rule left the countries of the South Caucasus incapable of cooperating On the Threshold of Independence effectively to mutual advantage. Bolshevik Russia The qualified gains Georgia made during the Soviet undermined each in succession. Revolution in Turkey period became less and less valuable as the Soviet worked to Georgia's disadvantage, though the new Union neared collapse. In 1990 Georgians found Turkish republic later evolved as a positive factor for themselves enthusiastic about independence but lacked Georgia. By the beginning of 1921 the tide of history a civil society and leaders with skill in politics and had turned hopelessly against Georgia. Nevertheless knowledge of how to lead and govern. The country the country put up strong resistance to Russian military had a deteriorated infrastructure and industry that was conquest and seizure of power by the communist party barely functional.