Beyond Set Theory: The relationship between logic and taxonomy from the early 1930 to 1960. by Charissa Sujata Varma A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology University of Toronto © Copyright by Charissa Sujata Varma 2013 Beyond Set Theory: The relationship between logic and taxonomy from the early 1930s to 1960. Charissa Sujata Varma Doctor of Philosophy Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology University of Toronto 2013 Abstract In this dissertation I look at the relationship between logic and taxonomy as taxonomists responded to double attack: an attack on their methodology from the biological community during the 1930s and at the start of a methodological civil war that erupted in late 1950s. According to the usual story, the relationship between logic and taxonomy could not have been worse. Taxonomists were thought to be either mired in Aristotelian essences or lost in some dubious set-theoretic wasteland. This story, however, is now recognized as being a political tool rather than an accurate history and the time is ripe for something new. I examine four cases: British botanist John Gilmour, American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson, German entomologist Willi Hennig, and American philosopher Morton Beckner that help illustrate the richness of this relationship. These cases will show how different branches of logic successfully played roles in taxonomy’s methodological reform, rather than set-theory playing the dominant and ultimately failing role as the old paradigm. In addition, it will become clear that one reason why this could be done was because many of these taxonomists were part of transient interdisciplinary groups willing to relax the standards of authority within interdisciplinary communities. These changes in authority helped facilitate communication and promote ii knowledge production during this complex time. Taxonomists without the traditionally recognized expertise in logic chose to read logic on the fly, and likewise philosophers and other biologists without established training in taxonomy could enter the debate in significant and productive ways. iii Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor Prof Mary P. (Polly) Winsor. There are many things I can say about Polly as a supervisor, from her unflinching editorial eye to her inspirational work in history of biology, but it was her ceaseless love, encouragement, and generosity that carried me through this project. She pushed me beyond what I thought I was capable of intellectually and creatively, and I am a better historian, philosopher, and writer because of her. Polly didn’t just instill in me a love and passion for history of biology—the practitioners, the organisms, the institutions, the issues—she gave me an intellectual family, and was the perfect matriarch. Like a family, we her students laughed together, cried together, worked together, taught together, published together, travelled together, read each other’s dissertations and articles, and (in some cases) went to each other’s foreign convocations. Keynyn Brysse, Conor Burns, Jamie Elwick, Gillian Gass, Gordon McOuat, and especially Sara Scharf (my dear partner in crime), thank you so much for being my family. Polly, thank you for always being “our mum.” I hope I did you proud. Prof. Paul Thompson, the second member of my supervisory committee, was my rock. His unwavering support and patience with me especially during the most chaotic times of his semesters were rivaled only by his uncanny ability to provide perfectly-timed, exacting, constructive questions that always seem to cut to the heart of the problem. Paul was the perfect balance of administrative magic and philosophical wonder. I am grateful to Prof. Gordon McOuat, the third member of my supervisory committee, for several lively and provoking conversations and exchanges. His work in nineteenth-century biology influenced parts of this project, and as always, I benefited from his feedback and advice. I would like to thank Profs Craig Fraser and Denis Walsh, who served on my oral examination committee, for their insightful questions, and their thoughtful contributions to a stimulating conversation during the oral defense, as well as to my external examiner, Prof. Richard Richards, whose invaluable comments and suggestions have been helpful to this project and will be to future work stemming from this project. The time I spent at the University of Toronto has been rewarding, challenging, and fulfilling. I have benefited from the direction and guidance of an extraordinary supervisory iv committee on this project, and learned from an astonishing group of scholars at the Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology. I conducted much of my research using the University of Toronto’s phenomenal library system, in particular the Fisher Rare Books Library, and I want to thank the many librarians and archivists, Richard Landon in particular, who aided my research. I also want to thank the University of Toronto, the IHPST in particular, for the generous funding and scholarships I have received, specifically the travel grant that allowed me to conduct research in London, England on late nineteenth and early twentieth- century logic, and the internship with Cambridge University to work on the Darwin Correspondence Project. I would also like to thank both the IHPST and the Philosophy Department for providing me with many valuable teaching opportunities (both as a teaching assistant and instructor), especially those that dovetail this project. It has been a true pleasure and honour to teach these students. It was because of their faith in me that I was awarded a University Teaching Award for Excellence in Teaching. My time in Toronto was all the more fun because of my fantastic friends, professors, and administrators: Teri Gee, David Gugel, Gavin Hammel, Martha Harris, Angela Heffernan, Drew Hicks, Sarah Hundleby, Lindsay Irvin, Jennifer Keelan, Jessica Lovett, Darcy Otto, Muna Salloum, Jennifer Smolenaars, Colin Stewart, Jonathan Turner, Jai Virdi, Shana Worthen, Prof. Jim Brown, Prof. Bert Hall, Prof. Margaret Hundleby, and Prof. Pauline Mazumdar, you kept me happy and sane. Special thanks are owed to my dear friend Kelli Carr, who kept my head and home in perfect order while I lived in Toronto. That poor girl knows more about nineteenth-century bee taxonomy than any normal person should. She is a saint, and heaven knows she suffered like one with me as her roommate, especially during the ugly Linnaeus years. The final stage of my writing was completed in Windsor, Ontario. Dr. John Strang kept me on track, which was no small feat. For more weeks than I can count, we were inseparable— John in his office and me in the autism testing room. Thank you, John, for the talks, the laughs, the advice, and our Friday afternoons. My life in Windsor was richer because of my people, so thank you Victoria Cross, Jodi House, Stephen Pender, Bob Pinto, Christine Purcell, Jeff Noonan, Cory Saunders, Josie Watson, and especially my boys Len Wallace and the mighty Tory James. My greatest debt is to my best friend, Catherine Hundleby. Catherine’s friendship and strength sustained me through degrees, moves, heartbreaks, life, and deaths. She is incredible. It is no surprise that I lived under her roof during the final stages of this project. v Finally, I would like to thank my family. I want to thank Bob and Lynn Ross, and David and Kathy Ross not just for their unconditional love and support, but for their tireless efforts to keep us all together as one huge family. You have all done brilliantly. I would not have made it through this without you. I would also like to thank Alakh and Colleen Varma, and Achla and Bageshwari Sinha for their love and support with all my decisions and ambitions, and for holding my hand every time I needed it. Thanks to my cousins Jonathan, Allison and her husband Matt, Heather and her husband Cormac, Andrew, Anvita and Anup for being what I needed when I needed it, which was often just hilarious. Seriously, you people are hilarious. Last, but certainly not least, many thanks to my siblings Kara and her husband Rich, and Adam for their patience, understanding and love for they had the enormously difficult task of putting up with me on this long journey. My sweet, baby India, your smile lights up my day like nothing else. My darling, darling Isaac, your beautiful face always reminds me there is joy in my life. And monster trucks. vi To my mother, Annette Margaret Styles (1946-2010) Not a word of this could have been written without you. Not a day goes by that I don’t miss you with all my heart. vii Table of Contents « Table of Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research question ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Reasons for needed work