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5NITED+INGDOM WWWTHEIETORG 7HILETHEAUTHORANDTHEPUBLISHERSBELIEVETHATTHEINFORMATIONANDGUIDANCEGIVEN INTHISWORKARECORRECT ALLPARTIESMUSTRELYUPONTHEIROWNSKILLANDJUDGEMENTWHEN MAKINGUSEOFTHEM.EITHERTHEAUTHORNORTHEPUBLISHERSASSUMEANYLIABILITYTO ANYONEFORANYLOSSORDAMAGECAUSEDBYANYERROROROMISSIONINTHEWORK WHETHER SUCHERROROROMISSIONISTHERESULTOFNEGLIGENCEORANYOTHERCAUSE!NYANDALLSUCH LIABILITYISDISCLAIMED 4HEMORALRIGHTOFTHEAUTHORTOBEIDENTIÙEDASAUTHOROFTHISWORKHASBEENASSERTED BYHIMINACCORDANCEWITHTHE#OPYRIGHT $ESIGNSAND0ATENTS!CT "RITISH,IBRARY#ATALOGUINGIN0UBLICATION$ATA 0ROPAGATIONOFRADIOWAVESpNDED 2ADIOWAVEPROPAGATION )"ARCLAY ,7,ES7 )))NSTITUTIONOF%LECTRICAL%NGINEERS l )3".DIGIT )3".DIGIT 4YPESETINTHE5+BY2EÙNE#ATCH,TD "UNGAY 3UFFOLK &IRSTPRINTEDINTHE5+BY-0'"OOKS,TD "ODMIN #ORNWALL 2EPRINTEDINTHE5+BY,IGHTNING3OURCE5+,TD -ILTON+EYNES Contents Preface xix 1 Radiowave propagation and spectrum use 1 Martin Hall and Les Barclay 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The radio spectrum 2 1.3 Radio services 2 1.4 The propagation environment 4 1.5 Spectrum use 5 1.5.1 ELF and ULF (below 3 kHz) and VLF (3–30 kHz) 5 1.5.2 LF (30–300 kHz) 7 1.5.3 MF (300 kHz–3 MHz) 7 1.5.4 HF (3–30 MHz) 7 1.5.5 VHF (30–300 MHz) 8 1.5.6 UHF (300 MHz–3 GHz) 8 1.5.7 SHF (3–30 GHz) 8 1.5.8 EHF (30–300 GHz) 9 1.6 Conclusions 9 2 Basic principles 1 11 Les Barclay 2.1 Basic radio system parameters 11 2.2 Propagation in free space 11 2.2.1 Polarisation 12 2.3 Antenna gain 12 2.4 Effective radiated power 13 2.5 The effect of the ground 14 2.6 Transmission loss 14 2.7 Fading and variability 16 2.7.1 Occurrence distributions 17 2.7.2 Normal (Gaussian) distribution 18 2.7.3 Log-normal distribution 20 2.7.4 Rayleigh distribution 20 2.7.5 Combined log-normal and Rayleigh distribution 21 vi Contents 2.7.6 Rice distribution 21 2.7.7 The gamma distribution 23 2.7.8 Other distributions 23 2.8 Radio noise 25 2.9 Link power budgets 28 2.9.1 Fading allowances 29 2.10 Diversity 30 2.10.1 Correlation coefficient 30 2.10.2 Diversity gain and diversity improvement 31 2.11 References 32 3 Basic principles 2 35 David Bacon 3.1 Vector nature of radiowaves 35 3.1.1 Qualitative description of the plane wave 35 3.1.2 Complex phasor notation 36 3.1.3 The sense of time and space 37 3.1.4 Linear, circular and elliptical polarisation 38 3.2 Multipath propagation 38 3.2.1 Reinforcement and cancellation 38 3.2.2 Flat and selective fading 40 3.2.3 The broadband channel and correlation bandwidth 40 3.2.4 Fast and slow fading 41 3.2.5 Delay spread 42 3.2.6 Frequency spread, or Doppler 43 3.2.7 Direction of arrival 44 3.2.8 Conclusions 44 3.3 Footnote: a useful mathematical approximation 44 4 Propagation data requirements for radiocommunications system planning 47 Tim Hewitt 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Quality parameters for radiocommunications circuits 48 4.2.1 Key terms and definitions 48 4.2.2 Related propagation issues 49 4.2.3 A note of caution 50 4.3 Event durations 52 4.4 Digital radio networks 53 4.4.1 General considerations 53 4.4.2 Modern digital radio systems 55 4.4.3 Related propagation issues 55 4.4.4 Simultaneous fading 55 4.5 Long-term and short-term criteria 57 4.5.1 The long-term criteria 57 Contents vii 4.5.2 The short-term criteria 58 4.5.3 A simple design exercise 58 4.6 ITU-R performance and availability objectives 60 4.6.1 General 60 4.6.2 Fixed service performance objectives 60 4.6.2.1 ITU-R objectives 60 4.6.2.2 Propagation in any month 61 4.6.2.3 Errored seconds ratio 62 4.6.3 Fixed service availability objectives 62 4.6.3.1 ITU-R objectives 62 4.6.3.2 Propagation issues 63 4.6.4 Fixed satellite service performance objectives 63 4.6.4.1 ITU-R objectives 63 4.6.4.2 Propagation issues 64 4.6.5 Fixed satellite service availability objectives 65 4.6.5.1 ITU-R objectives 65 4.6.5.2 Propagation issues 65 4.6.6 Sharing between the fixed service and the fixed satellite service 65 4.6.6.1 Fixed satellite service protection 65 4.6.6.2 Fixed service protection 66 4.6.6.3 Propagation issues 66 4.7 Worst month 67 4.7.1 The concept of the worst month 67 4.7.2 Average worst-month statistics 68 4.7.3 Worst months for other return periods 71 4.8 Simple checks on the design 72 5 Electromagnetic wave propagation 75 M.J. Mehler 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Power budget 75 5.2.1 Transmitting antennas 76 5.2.2 Receiving antennas 77 5.2.3 Free-space transmission loss 78 5.2.4 Link power budget 78 5.3 Basic electromagnetic theory 78 5.3.1 Plane-wave solutions 79 5.3.2 Wave impedence 81 5.3.3 Power flow and Poynting’s theorem 81 5.3.4 Exponential notation 81 5.4 Radiation from current distributions 82 5.4.1 Radiation from a short current element 83 5.4.2 Radiation resistance 85 5.4.3 The halfwave dipole 85 5.5 References 86 viii Contents 6Reflection and scattering from rough surfaces 87 David Bacon 6.1 Introduction 87 6.2 Reflection from a plane surface 87 6.2.1 The complex reflection coefficient 88 6.2.2 Definition of reflection angles 88 6.2.3 Designation of polarisation 88 6.3 Reflection by perfectly-conducting surfaces 89 6.3.1 Theory of images 89 6.3.2 Perfect reflection for perpendicular polarisation 90 6.3.3 Perfect reflection for parallel polarisation 90 6.3.4 Discussion of perfect-reflection results 91 6.4 Reflection by finitely-conducting surfaces 91 6.4.1 Electrical properties relevant to reflection 91 6.4.2 Snell’s law for angle of refraction 92 6.4.3 Continuity of tangential electric fields 92 6.4.4 Continuity of tangential magnetic field 93 6.4.5 Complex permittivity 93 6.4.6 General complex reflection coefficients 94 6.5 The plane-earth two-ray reflection model 97 6.5.1 Explicit calculation 97 6.6 Approximation to two-ray reflection 98 6.7 Reflection and scattering from rough surfaces 100 7 Clear-air characteristics of the troposphere 103 K.H. Craig 7.1 Introduction 103 7.2 Causes and effects of refraction in the troposphere 103 7.2.1 Electromagnetic waves 103 7.2.2 Radio refractive index 104 7.2.3 Effect of the refractive index on radiowaves 106 7.2.4 Gaseous absorption and complex refractive index 110 7.2.5 Refractive index measurements 112 7.3 Anomalous