RE-MADE IN ASIA: TRANSFORMATION ACROSS ASIAN MARKETS AND POPULAR CULTURE Seiko King AALaw (Meiji, Japan), BA (Pace, US), MA (Columbia, US), MA (Macquarie, Australia) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Creative Industries Queensland University of Technology 2012 Keywords Adaptation Cultural proximity Harmony Hybridity Popular culture Regionalisation Remaking (Remake) Soft power Television drama, film, manga, anime, audio visual content i Abstract The thesis is an examination of how Japanese popular culture products are remade (rimeiku). Adaptation of manga, anime and television drama, from one format to another, frequently occurs within Japan. The rights to these stories and texts are traded in South Korea and Taiwan. The ‘spin-off’ products form part of the Japanese content industry. When products are distributed and remade across geographical boundaries, they have a multi-dimensional aspect and potentially contribute to an evolving cultural re-engagement between Japan and East Asia. The case studies are the television dramas Akai Giwaku and Winter Sonata and two manga, Hana yori Dango and Janguru Taitei. Except for the television drama Winter Sonata these texts originated in Japan. Each study shows how remaking occurs across geographical borders. The study argues that Japan has been slow to recognise the value of its popular culture through regional and international media trade. Japan is now taking steps to remedy this strategic shortfall to enable the long-term viability of the Japanese content industry. The study includes an examination of how remaking raises legal issues in the appropriation of media content. Unauthorised copying and piracy contributes to loss of financial value. To place the three Japanese cultural products into a historical context, the thesis includes an overview of Japanese copying culture from its early origins through to ii the present day. The thesis also discusses the Meiji restoration and the post-World War II restructuring that resulted in Japan becoming a regional media powerhouse. The localisation of Japanese media content in South Korea and Taiwan also brings with it significant cultural influences, which may be regarded as contributing to a better understanding of East Asian society in line with the idea of regional ‘harmony’. The study argues that the commercial success of Japanese products beyond Japan is governed by perceptions of the quality of the story and by the cultural frames of the target audience. The thesis draws on audience research to illustrate the loss or reinforcement of national identity as a consequence of cross- cultural trade. The thesis also examines the contribution to Japanese ‘soft power’ (Nye, 2004, p. x). The study concludes with recommendations for the sustainability of the Japanese media industry. iii Table of Contents Keywords ................................................................................................................................................. i Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... iv List of Diagrams ................................................................................................................................... vii List of Photographs ............................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... viii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. ix Japanese Family Names ......................................................................................................................... ix Statement of Original Authorship ........................................................................................................... x Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND THESIS SUMMARY 1.1 Introduction… ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Background… ................................................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Scope of Research… ..................................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Methods… ..................................................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Summary of Chapters… ................................................................................................................ 22 CHAPTER 2: REMAKING THE KEY INGREDIENTS 2.1 Introduction… ............................................................................................................................... 27 2.2 Japanese Popular Culture… .......................................................................................................... 29 2.3 Remaking, Roots and Visual Culture… ........................................................................................ 36 2.4 Cultural Adaptation, Formats and Remaking… ............................................................................ 40 2.5 Fan Culture… ................................................................................................................................ 46 2.6 Cultural Proximity… ..................................................................................................................... 48 2.7 Conclusion… ................................................................................................................................ 50 CHAPTER 3: JAPANESE POPULAR CULTURE AND THE GLOBAL DOMAIN 3.1 Introduction … .............................................................................................................................. 53 3.2 Japan: Towards Globalisation … .................................................................................................. 55 3.3 Manga… ....................................................................................................................................... 63 3.4 Regionalisation or Globalisation?… ............................................................................................. 68 3.5 Gross National Cool… .................................................................................................................. 70 3.6 Emerging Japanese Soft Power… ................................................................................................. 74 3.7 Regional Political Engagement: East Asian Cultural Flows… ..................................................... 78 3.8 Conclusion… ................................................................................................................................ 84 iv CHAPTER 4: THE EXPANSION OF JAPANESE MEDIA CONTENT IN EAST ASIA 4.1 Introduction… ............................................................................................................................... 87 4.2 Japanese Television Networks… .................................................................................................. 88 4.3 Japanese Content Industry… ......................................................................................................... 94 4.4 Regionalisation Emerges… ......................................................................................................... 106 4.5 Conclusion…............................................................................................................................... 108 CHAPTER 5: THE REMAKING OF THE MANGA HANA YORI DANGO 5.1 Introduction… ............................................................................................................................. 111 5.2 Background… ............................................................................................................................. 112 5.3 Foregrounding Analysis… .......................................................................................................... 115 5.4 Textual Analysis… ...................................................................................................................... 118 5.5 Summary of the Taiwanese and Korean Textual Analysis Compared with the Original Japanese Manga… ............................................................................................................................. 132 5.6 Boys over Flowers: The Script Writer’s Perspective… ............................................................... 135 5.7 Conclusion…............................................................................................................................... 143 CHAPTER 6: AKAI GIWAKU: THE INSPIRATION FOR WINTER SONATA 6.1 Introduction… ............................................................................................................................. 147 6.2 Television Drama Evolves in Japan… .......................................................................................