MASTERARBEIT / MASTER’S THESIS Titel der Masterarbeit / Title of the Master‘s Thesis Poppies and Power – How hegemonic powers influenced the Afghan opium economy from the 19th century to the present day verfasst von / submitted by Clara Maureen Easthill, BA angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (MA) Wien, 2017 / Vienna 2017 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt / A 066 805 degree programme code as it appears on the student record sheet: Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt / Masterstudium Globalgeschichte und Global Studies degree programme as it appears on the student record sheet: Betreut von / Supervisor: a.o.Univ.-Prof. Dr. Erich Landsteiner i ii Acknowledgments I want to thank all those who took the time to read my thesis, and who helped me through it – especially my family (Philip, Heidi and Chris), my friends (Julia and Alex) and Rolf Bauer of the University of Vienna. iii Table of Contents Table of figures ...................................................................................................................... vi Glossary ................................................................................................................................ vii Abbreviations...................................................................................................................... viii 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. Review of primary and secondary sources .......................................................................... 12 3. Specifics of the opium production in Afghanistan .............................................................. 18 3.1 Poppy Cultivation ........................................................................................................... 19 3.2 Laboratories in Afghanistan ........................................................................................... 25 3.3 Trafficking ...................................................................................................................... 28 3.4 Consumption ................................................................................................................... 31 4. The influence of hegemonic powers on the production of opium ....................................... 34 4.1 Legal production of opium from the 19th to the mid 20th century: British support of a legal economy (1809-1945) .................................................................................................. 34 Decisive factors influencing the opium economy in Afghanistan .................................... 38 The bases of the Afghan economy and trading systems ................................................... 42 4.2 A turning point: The outlawing of opium, the Great Game and their influences on the Afghan opium economy (1945-1978) .................................................................................. 44 Economic factors favouring an increased production ....................................................... 45 Production and consumption ............................................................................................. 46 A new stance on drugs ...................................................................................................... 49 A dependent economy – the influence of international interests on opium production .... 52 Other factors favouring an illicit production ..................................................................... 55 4.3 The Soviet invasion – How misinformed Soviet tactics led to a previously unthought-of expansion of the opium production in Afghanistan (1979-1989)......................................... 56 Production and consumption ............................................................................................. 58 The Soviet Invasion as a decisive factor in the rising production of opium ..................... 60 iv Domestic factors contributing to a growing production.................................................... 61 The issue of a weak state ................................................................................................... 62 Economic factors favouring illegal production ................................................................. 67 4.4 Foreign and internal forces: The role of the civil war and the Taliban occupation of Afghanistan within the Afghan opium production (1989-2000) .......................................... 71 Production and consumption ............................................................................................. 75 The influence of the Mujahedeen on the opium economy ................................................ 77 The emergence of the Taliban: Confused policies and encouragement of the opium economy ............................................................................................................................ 78 The role of the state: The central state and alternative state-making ................................ 83 A semi-legal economy. Afghan advantages in the opium production under Taliban rule 85 The economy of Afghanistan during the civil war and the Taliban rule........................... 86 4.5 The arrival of ISAF – how the presence of international forces in Afghanistan after 9/11 changed the opium economy (from 2001) ............................................................................ 86 Continuous instability, insurgency and corruption as factors for the increased production ........................................................................................................................................... 89 The role of opium in alternative state-making .................................................................. 90 Counternarcotics strategies since 2001 – strengths and weaknesses ................................ 91 Consumption and production of opium in post 9/11 Afghanistan .................................... 97 The effects of a weak economy on the opium production ................................................ 99 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 102 Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 110 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 110 Overview of rulers in Afghanistan ..................................................................................... 112 Data used in the thesis ........................................................................................................ 114 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 120 v Table of figures Figure 1 Afghan identification and identities, according to Louis Dupree ................................ 8 Figure 2 Opium produced in Afghanistan in metric tons; contrasting US and UNODC/MCN results ....................................................................................................................................... 15 Figure 3 Land used in Afghanistan for opium cultivation, contrasting US and UNODC/MCN results ....................................................................................................................................... 16 Figure 4 Average farm-gate price of opium at harvest time .................................................... 20 Figure 5 Average prices of Wheat and Saffron, collected monthly by the Afghan government .................................................................................................................................................. 21 Figure 6 Map of laboratories in Afghanistan in 2010. ............................................................. 26 Figure 7 Work steps and chemicals involved in the production of opium and heroin ............ 27 Figure 8 Main trafficking routes out of Afghanistan. .............................................................. 30 Figure 9 Provinces of opium production around 1908 ............................................................ 35 Figure 10 Provinces of opium production in 1949 ................................................................. 47 Figure 11 Opium Production under Soviet Occupation in Afghanistan. ................................. 57 Figure 12 Opium production from 1990-2001......................................................................... 73 Figure 13 Provinces of opium production in 2000 ................................................................ 75 Figure 14 Opium production in Badakhshan province, 1994-2002 ........................................ 76 Figure 15 Opium production 2001-2016 ................................................................................. 87 Figure 16 Provinces under opium production in 2016............................................................. 98 Table 1 Number of people who used drugs at least once in the past year ............................... 32 Table 2 Opium import figures from 1934-1945, in metric tons .............................................. 36 Table 3 Export estimates by the Afghan government, 1937-1941 .......................................... 37 Table 4 Apprehension of Afghan smugglers, 1971-1973 .......................................................