The Role of Welsh-language Journalism in Shaping the Construction of Welsh Identity and the National Character of Wales Robert Glyn Môn Hughes A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Liverpool John Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). March 2017 What role does journalism play? It’s a central role. It’s part of the way in which we identify ourselves and understand ourselves. The written word. The spoken word. They are critical. Meri Huws Welsh Language Commissioner (Interview, August 2012) i ii Acknowledgements This project marks the culmination of six years of study and research. Numerous people have been key to making this happen over the period in question. These include Director of Studies Dr Rex Li who was always on hand to advise and assist. Supervisors Drs Guy Hodgson and Robert Graham were also keen to give welcome guidance. Special mention must be made of colleagues Jackie Newton (Programme Leader of Journalism) and Kate Heathman (Senior Lecturer in Journalism) who encouraged me when the going was tough, Sheena Streather (Academic Liaison Librarian in Aldham Robarts Library) who helped me track down hard-to-find items and staff at the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth whose skill and assistance in finding various texts was much appreciated. Another special mention should be given to my late parents who installed the interest in Welsh matters and Welsh culture in general. Although born in Liverpool (which, some would say, is the ‘capital’ of North Wales if not all Wales), I was the first generation not to have been born in the country. I was brought up in a Welsh environment in Wirral where I would hear the language spoken at home and where I attended the Welsh chapel in Birkenhead where my late father was minister. I later studied music at the University of Wales and took, as part of the degree route, a first year of Welsh language studies. Finally, and most especially, a particular word of thanks to my partner Mark Hanley who had to put up with moments of serious self-doubt and panic and flashes of occasional inspiration, as this sort of study will engender. All of these were met with genuine words of encouragement. He also produced gallons of tea while I was virtually chained to a computer or found myself elbows deep in books and documents. GLYN MÔN HUGHES iii iv Abstract The Role of Welsh-language Journalism in Shaping the Construction of Welsh Identity and the National Character of Wales Ever since Edward I subjugated the Welsh in 1282 and, a little over 250 years later, Henry VIII attempted to wipe the country off the map, Wales has lived in the overpowering shadow of its powerful English neighbour. Unlike Scotland, Wales did not develop its own legal and banking systems and symbols of national identity were slow to appear. This thesis argues that, while many national institutions are relatively recent innovations, the Welsh language is the most potent symbol of national identity. More importantly, it argues that it was the journalists who used the language to communicate “Welshness”. They, in many ways, created a radical approach to politics, an antipathy towards the Established Church, an occasional suspicion of the country’s English neighbour, an interest in international affairs and an awareness of the rich cultural heritage of the country. This argument has been pursued by way of a critical survey of the development of Welsh- language journalism. To date, there are no specific studies on this subject - particularly relatively recent developments since the advent of S4C in 1982. Indeed, little scholarly attention has been paid to the fast-developing world of on-line journalism and the use of social media as far as the Welsh language is concerned. The main analytical focus of this thesis is to examine the impact of Welsh-language journalism on the national consciousness in Wales. This has been done through a series of case studies, content analyses and interviews with influential and experienced journalists and editors in all fields of journalism, namely print, broadcast and on-line. The conclusion is that journalists reintroduced the Welsh people to their literature and poetry, they wrote about traditional music, they adopted a radical approach to national and international politics, they were sympathetic to the non-conformist religion of the majority of people and news was reported from a Welsh point of view. Indeed, the phrase Welsh Renaissance has been applied to the section of this thesis related to Early Periodicals. v There is considerable scope for further research. There is no history of solely Welsh-language journalism in a single volume. In recent years, journalism has moved on rapidly, as new forms of journalism have rapidly become established. There is little analysis of the effects of these outlets on Welsh consumers, let alone the effects of radio and television to any great degree. In addition, as Wales becomes more confident in the post-devolution era, Welsh journalism becomes more relevant and there is scope to chart how much influence Welsh- language journalism really has on its consumers. vi Contents Chapter One: Introduction – 1 1.1 Welsh National Identity: What is it? - 1 1.2 Conflicts in Welsh history - 2 1.3 The view from over the border - 2 1.4 Identity has exercised minds for millennia - 3 1.5 Political dominance and industrial decline change Wales - 4 1.6 Re-invention creates new tensions - 5 1.7 Historical review: Did Wales ever exist? - 6 1.8 The identity “crisis” persists - 11 1.9 New confidence: new identity – 12 1.10 Identity or Identities? - 13 1.11 Thesis aims and objectives - 14 1.12 Hypothesis - 15 1.13 Research questions - 16 1.14 Theories of journalism production - 16 1.14.1 Agenda Setting - 18 1.14.2 Citizen Journalism - 19 1.14.3 Connotation and Denotation - 19 1.14.4 Convergence - 21 1.14.5 Cultural Studies -22 1.14.6 Discourse Theories -23 1.14.7 Framing and Bias - 25 1.14.8 Media Effects Theories – 26 1.14.9 Application of theories - 26 1.15 Peripheral Theories – 27 1.16 Conclusion - 312 Chapter Two: Literature Review – 33 2.1 Introduction – 33 vii 2.2 Welsh-language journalism and Welsh identity: so little? – 34 2.3 Nations and states – 35 2.4 National identity and nationalism – 39 2.5 Welsh national identity – 45 2.6 The notion of post-colonial Wales - 63 2.7 Media, the nation and Welsh journalism – 64 2.7 Conclusion – 80 Chapter Three: Methods and Methodology – 81 3.1 Introduction – 81 3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Research – 81 3.3 Division between Qualitative and Quantitative Research – 83 3.4 Analysis of Primary and Secondary Data – 84 3.5 Consideration of Semiotics and the Influence of the Writer – 84 3.6 The Framework of Philosophies – 85 3.7 Strategies of Inquiry – 86 3.8 Consideration of Research Activities – 86 3.8.1 Ethnographical considerations – 87 3.8.2 Case studies – 88 3.8.3 Content analysis – 89 3.8.4 Language study – 89 3.8.5 Interviews – 90 3.8.6 Historical research – 92 3.8.7 Questionnaires – 92 3.9 Research Areas Considered But Not Used – 92 3.10 Research Ethics - 94 3.11 Conclusion and Research Route Map – 94 Chapter Four: The Place of Wales in the World – 97 4.1 Introduction – 97 4.2 Wales in a Changing World –97 4.3 Interpretations of Identity – 99 viii 4.4 Views of Welsh identity – 100 4.5 The Age of Enlightenment – the Welsh linguistic “divide” – 103 4.6 Religion and Industrialisation – 104 4.7 Absence of the Welsh dimension from the UK national debate – 105 4.8 What is the Welsh nation? – 106 4.9 The Welsh “irrelevance” – 118 4.10 Conclusion - 120 Chapter Five: Welsh Identity in the Media – 123 5.1 Introduction – 123 5.2 Identity – 125 5.3.1 Newspapers and periodicals – 127 5.3.2 Golwg case study - 131 5.4 Broadcasting - 135 5.5 The Papurau Bro - 147 5.6 Web and On-Line Journalism - 149 5.7 Theoretical discussion – 153 5.8 Conclusion – 162 Chapter Six: The Early Periodicals of Wales – Beginning of the “Welsh Renaissance” – 163 6.1 Introduction – 163 6.2 Early Welsh Books Pave the Way for Periodicals – 164 6.3 Religious Tensions Presage Political Radicalism – 165 6.4 Wales Riven by Social and Linguistic Divisions – 166 6.5 Appearance of First Periodical – 167 6.6 Importance of London as a Welsh publishing centre – 167 6.7 Industrialisation Changes the Face of Wales – 168 6.8 Pamphleteers and Radicalism – 169 6.9 Appearance of the Second Major Welsh Periodical – 171 6.10 The Catalyst for New Ventures – 172 6.11 The Importance of Denominational Magazines – 173 6.12 Appearance of the First Newspapers – 174 ix 6.13 Over-reliance on Church Backing? – 177 6.14 Difficulty of Press Support without Church Backing – 179 6.15 Appearance of Welsh-Language Newspapers – 180 6.16 Children’s Publications – 182 6.17 Women’s Magazines – 182 6.18 Identity and the Welsh Press – 183 6.19 Theoretical Discussion – 185 6.20 Conclusion - 186 Chapter Seven: Welsh Newspapers and Later Periodicals – A Period of Consolidation – 187 7.1 Introduction – 187 7.2 The Identity Crisis in 19th century Wales – 188 7.3 Foundations Laid by the Early Welsh Periodical Press – 190 7.4 The “Torrents” of Newsprint – 191 7.5 Industrialisation Continues to Change the Face of Wales – 192 7.6 The importance of Seren Gomer – 193 7.7 Baner ac Amserau Cymru: the First “National” – 195 7.8 Editors’ Expertise Helps Solidify the Newspaper Press – 198 7.9 A New Interest in National and International News – 199 7.10 Non-conformist Publications Make a Significant Impact – 200 7.11 Small Centres Continue to Dominate Production – 203