Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2014 The Rail and the Cross in West Virginia Timber Country: Rethinking Religion in the Appalachian Mountains Joseph F. Super Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Super, Joseph F., "The Rail and the Cross in West Virginia Timber Country: Rethinking Religion in the Appalachian Mountains" (2014). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 6744. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/6744 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Rail and the Cross in West Virginia Timber Country: Rethinking Religion in the Appalachian Mountains Joseph F. Super Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Kenneth Fones-Wolf, Ph.D., Chair Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, Ph.D. Brian Luskey, Ph.D. Krystal Frazier, Ph.D. Jane Donovan, D. Min. Department of History Morgantown, West Virginia 2014 Keywords: railroads, religion, West Virginia Copyright 2014 Joseph F. Super Abstract The Rail and the Cross in West Virginia Timber Country: Rethinking Religion in the Appa- lachian Mountains Joseph F. Super West Virginia underwent significant changes in the four decades between 1880 and 1920. The Gilded Age and the Progressive Era witnessed political, social, cultural, and economic up- heavals as industrialists looked to exploit natural resources and propel the Mountain State into a position of leadership in a modern national economy. Railroads opened up the remote interior counties, paving the way for the oil, coal, and timber industries. The West Virginia Central and Pittsburg Railway, under the direction of Henry Gassaway Davis, scaled the highest peaks of the Allegheny Mountains. Davis and his business associates quickly took control of the timber and coal reserves in the mountain counties. Local elites allied themselves with larger capitalists, forming partnerships which enabled outsiders to dominate local political and economic life throughout the period. Religious transformations characterized the period as well. Nation-wide, Protestant mis- sionaries moved into the South, seeking to evangelize, educate, and uplift whites and blacks. Northern churches paid particular attention to the mountain South. However, West Virginia re- ceived significantly less money and manpower from national denominations than the other states in Appalachia. State and local religious organizations stepped in and ensured that the rapidly in- creasing population of the state would not go un-reached. They used the railroad to their ad- vantage as well. Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians, the three largest Protestant groups in the country and in West Virginia, led the way. All three already had some presence in the mountains, and denominational networks ensured that these mountain churches had some ties to mainline Chris- tianity. Missionaries working in the most remote regions reinforced traditional doctrine and practice while strengthening denominational ties. Churches attracted people of all social ranks, although Methodists and Baptists offered more opportunities for working class members. While the secular affairs of mountain communities and counties remained firmly in control of industri- alists and their local affiliates, the sacred sphere remained open for all. At the same time, churches across the state joined in increasingly loud calls for moral re- form, particularly for new Sabbath and temperance laws. Thus, Protestant churches across the state reflected a mainline yet conservative doctrinal outlook that emphasized denominational dis- tinctives while championing a unified, broadly Protestant culture for the creation of sought-after Christian America. Industrialists such as Henry Gassaway Davis shared the vision of a Christian America and favored many of the same moral reforms. They worked together with churches to achieve common goals. However, despite the autonomy of the sacred sphere, the secular sphere had become dominant in the Alleghenies, in West Virginia, and in the United States. Thus, when the goals conflicted, as in the case of Sabbath reform, the secular usually won, thus further weakening and isolating the sacred. Acknowledgements This project has been a labor of love. Perhaps like many in my situation, I started out with great enthusiasm, got bogged down somewhere in the middle, and finally straggled across the finish line, collapsing in a heap. I never travelled great distances from Morgantown and I never had to board a plane, but I drove all over five counties in the West Virginia highlands, up mountains, down hollows, over gravel roads, and off maps. I hounded pastors, elders, deacons, secretaries, librarians, archivists and lay people to get access to records which, unfortunately, had too often been all but forgotten. I felt a great sense of accomplishment upon actually completing the dissertation. Looking back, however, the most rewarding part of this entire experience was seeing the smiles on the faces of the people I encountered along the way. They genuinely appre- ciated the fact that a stranger to their towns, homes, and churches cared enough to take the time just to listen to their stories and dig through their record books. These people are too numerous to mention here, but this work could never have materialized without them. I am truly grateful for their help and the work they continue to do, at times un-thanked and unnoticed, for their con- gregations and denominations. This dissertation would also not be possible without the efforts of my committee. Ken, Liz, Brian, Jane, and Krystal have all taken time out of their lives – personal and professional – to make this project a reality. Ken first suggested doing a dissertation on Appalachian religion sometime during my first year at WVU. The finished work is far from what he first brought up, but he started me down the right path. I have taken several classes with Liz, Brian, and Jane and my approach to history and religious studies has been critically shaped by these experiences. They challenged me to go in directions I never knew existed. Furthermore, Jane has been crucial in my understanding of Methodism and acted as a sounding board throughout the writing pro- cess. Krystal graciously stepped at the eleventh hour and agreed to bring her knowledge and ex- pertise to the work. I am eternally indebted to my parents – Joe and Deb Super -- for the love and support they have given me my entire life. They encouraged me literally every step of the way along my educational journey, from the time I started school as a Little Mountaineer at Third Ward Ele- mentary School to when I finally finished as a big Mountaineer at West Virginia University. They cheered with me during the good times and cried with me during the bad. They picked me up when I fell and made sure I persevered. They never gave up on me and refused to let me give up on myself. Thank you for everything you have done, and everything you will do. I owe a special thanks to my wife, Katie. She is my true love and sweetheart. She toler- ated my travel schedule while we were dating and has endured me in very close quarters during the final stages of writing. While the subject matter is near and dear to my heart, her love is truly inspirational. I wanted to write a quality dissertation, and I hope I have. She, however, is my passion. Being the husband she wants and deserves far surpasses anything I have written or may yet write. She is a gift from God, and I will never take her for granted. Last but not least, I suppose I also must thank Henry Gassaway Davis and Stephen B. Elkins, the co-founders of my hometown of Elkins, West Virginia. In a way, I owe my existence to these men, whom I discuss in greater detail below. The town of Elkins was their creation, and without it my parents would most likely not have met and I would never have been born. The railroad, the church, and the mountains are a part of me. These are their stories. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements iii 1: Introduction 1 2: The Sacred and the Secular in Reconstruction Era West Virginia: An Overview 29 3: Industry in the Mountains 69 4: Methodists 108 5: Presbyterians 170 6: Baptists 225 7: An Appalachian Social Gospel, or Becoming Fundamentalist? 274 8: Moral Reform 332 9: Comparisons and Conclusions 378 Bibliography 387 Appendix: Maps and Charts 409 iv 1: Introduction “And Jesus said unto them, Because of your unbelief: for verily I say unto you, If ye have faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say to this mountain, Remove hence to yonder place; and it shall remove; and nothing shall be impossible unto you.” As recorded in the Gospel of Matthew, 17:20 (Authorized Version), Jesus spoke these words to the disciples after they failed to drive out a particularly powerful demon. While to date there is no documentation of a person, or group of people, moving an actual mountain merely by word of command, the verse does illustrate the function of faith in overcoming seemingly insurmountable obstacles.