OTTOMAN WAR ON THE DANUBE: STATE, SUBJECT, AND SOLDIER (1853-1856) A Ph.D. Dissertation by İBRAHİM KÖREMEZLİ Department of International Relations İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University Ankara December 2013 To my family OTTOMAN WAR ON THE DANUBE: STATE, SUBJECT, AND SOLDIER (1853-1856) Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by İBRAHİM KÖREMEZLİ In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BİLKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA December 2013 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. --------------------------------- Assoc. Prof. Hakan Kırımlı Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. --------------------------------- Prof. Norman Stone Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. --------------------------------- Prof. Dr. Hasan Ünal Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. --------------------------------- Asst. Prof. Nur Bilge Criss Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. --------------------------------- Asst. Prof. Oktay Özel Examining Committee Member Approval of the Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences --------------------------------- Prof. Dr. Erdal Erel Director ABSTRACT OTTOMAN WAR ON THE DANUBE: STATE, SUBJECT, AND SOLDIER (1853-1856) Köremezli, İbrahim Ph.D., Department of International Relations Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hakan Kırımlı December 2013 This study analyzes the Danubian front of the Crimean War, which includes the military activities in the Ottoman Bulgaria, Dobruja and the Principalities. A comparison between Russian and Ottoman military activities in the Balkan theater helps to explain the “Ottoman and Russian War of 1853-1856” separate from the existing Eurocentric literature. This study not only explains the war as a product of interstate politics but also concentrates on the individual participants, both combatants and civilians. Logistics, intelligence activities, and prisoners of war will be focused on in addition to the battles to discuss the Danubian front from a broader perspective. There are three main chapters discussing the Danubian front of the Crimean War: “before the front”, “at the front” and “behind the front”. However, before explaining the battles in particular and the Danubian front in general, the legacy of the Crimean War historiography is reviewed and pre-war diplomacy is re-examined. Keywords: Danubian Front, Crimean War, Ottoman Army, Russian Army, Ottoman Society, Prisoners of War, Military Intelligence iii ÖZET TUNA’DA OSMANLI HARBİ: DEVLET, TEBAA VE ASKER (1853-1856) Köremezli, İbrahim Ph.D., Uluslararası İlişkiler Bölümü Supervisor: Doçent Dr. Hakan Kırımlı Aralık 2013 Bu çalışma, Kırım Harbi'nin Tuna Cephesi’ni incelemektedir. Bu cephe Bulgaristan, Dobruca ve Memleketeyn'deki askeri harekâtı içine almaktadır. Rusya ve Osmanlı Devletlerinin Balkanlardaki askeri harekâtının mukayesesi, "1853-1856 Osmanlı-Rus Harbi"ni Avrupa merkezli Kırım Harbi literatüründen daha farklı bir şekilde tartışmaya imkân tanımaktadır. Bu çalışma savaşı, sadece devletler arası politikanın bir sonucu olarak incelememekte, cephedeki bireyi (muharip ve sivil) tartışmaktadır. Bu tezde, muharebelerle birlikte lojistik, istihbarat ve savaş esirleri de ele alınmış; böylelikle Tuna Cephesi geniş bir perspektiften tahlil edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Tuna Cephesi üç ana bölümde incelenmiştir: "cephe öncesi", "cephe" ve "cephe gerisi". Savaşa geçmeden önce Kırım Harbi tarihyazımı ve savaş öncesi diplomasi tartışılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Tuna Cephesi, Kırım Harbi, Osmanlı Ordusu, Rus Ordusu, Osmanlı Toplumu, Savaş Esiri, Askeri İstihbarat iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is a long journey for me, some parts were written in Ankara, some in Moscow and some in Eskişehir. Thus, I have to thank many people who assisted me in writing the dissertation. First, I would like to thank TÜBİTAK for the doctoral grant which enabled me to continue my work. I also thank the IR department of ESOGÜ, which provided me a cordial atmosphere where this work could be written. During the research, I have used many archives and libraries. I want to thank the personnel of the GARF and the War Section of the Lenin Library in Moscow. Their politeness was rare in Russia. The conditions were somewhat difficult in ATASE and RGVIA, but it was not because of the personnel to whom I am also grateful. I have presented some chapters of this study in conferences in Istanbul, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Chicago, Sofia, and Lugansk, and enjoyed valuable comments of the participants. Military history workshops in Şehir University and Harp Akademisi in Istanbul were invaluable. Hakan Kırımlı is not only a supervisor for me. He shaped my entire academic career, by encouraging (or perhaps enforcing) me to study Russo-Ottoman relations. Nur Bilge Criss has been always kind when tutoring and helping me throughout my undergraduate and graduate years. Her comments on my dissertation are invaluable. Oktay Özel has also been supportive and kind throughout the writing process of this v work. I also want to thank Norman Stone and Hasan Ünal, other members of the dissertation committee, for their comments. Special thanks should go to my friends to whom I could not show my best company in recent years. Valeriy, Berat, Özhan, Serkan, and Abdurrahim all deserve thanks for their friendship, and for supplying me with certain materials from Britain and Russia. My colleagues in Eskişehir - both professors and research assistants – have always encouraged me, read some parts of the dissertation, and had been curious all the time about the day of my defense. Last but not least, I appreciate the patience of my wife and parents, who have endured the psychological burden of stressful doctorate years. Finally, all the faults and mistakes are mine. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... iii ÖZET ...................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................vii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 1.1. The Aim and Scope................................................................................. 1 1.2. The Method ............................................................................................ 4 1.3. The Organization .................................................................................... 5 1.4. The Questions ......................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................... 9 2.1. The Legacy of the Crimean War Historiography ..................................... 9 2.1.1. The First Modern War .............................................................. 10 2.1.2. Early Writings .......................................................................... 12 2.1.3. Crimean War Literature in the 20th Century ............................. 19 2.1.4. Recent Studies .......................................................................... 22 2.2. Blind Spots in the Literature ................................................................. 24 2.2.1. The Danube Front ..................................................................... 24 2.2.2. The Rival Armies ...................................................................... 29 2.2.3. The Individual in the War: Peasant, Prisoner, Spy, and Emigrant ...................................................................................................................... 31 2.3. The Archival Sources ............................................................................ 34 2.4. Access to Materials: Personal Experiences and Recent Developments .. 37 CHAPTER III: THE OTTOMAN ORIGINS REVISITED: WAR ON WORDS, WAR FOR WORDS ............................................................................................... 39 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................... 39 vii 3.2. Dispute over the Holy Lands ................................................................. 41 3.3. An Extraordinary Mission: Prince Menshikov at Istanbul ...................... 46 3.4. The Hot Summer of 1853. The Vienna Note and the Russian Occupation of the Principalities ................................................................................................. 51 3.5. Illusions