THE ENDURING AMBIGUITIES OF JAPAN’S POSTWAR SECULARISM David Rangdrol Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Political Science School of Political Studies Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa © David Rangdrol, Ottawa, Canada, 2018 ABSTRACT Following decades of state control of religion, a secular constitution was introduced in Japan in 1947, presenting favourable prospects for safeguarding freedom of conscience and equality. However, the vague language used in Articles 20 and 89 of the constitution arguably complicated the task of creating a strong, liberal secular regime. This thesis, therefore, will describe how institutional flaws have compounded the secularism-related challenges linked to the revival of Shinto’s public role in the postwar era, as well as the controversies surrounding the creation of a powerful Buddhism-based political party, the Komeito. In this regard, the Japanese case provides an opportunity to reflect on similar issues elsewhere in the world. Indeed, attempts at fostering citizens’ civic cohesion are being challenged in nation-states worldwide; on one hand, by the absolutist goals of religio-political movements, and on the other, by state-led constructions of national and religious identities. The Japanese case can especially contribute to the debates concerning the introduction of secularism in non-Western societies – notably where the notions used to articulate secularism, such as the religion–state dichotomy, either are absent or lack deep cultural and historical roots. By focusing on the impact of key ambiguities found at the core of Japan’s secular rules, the thesis will argue that institutional design choices, rather than cultural barriers, are responsible for some of the most important challenges confronting secularism in Japan today. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first thanks go to my thesis supervisor, André Laliberté, who supported me until the end, and who showed boundless patience as obstacles appeared between me and the finish line. Thanks for providing the very first encouragement to pursue my interest with religion and politics through the Japanese case and for the precious academic guidance. This research would have not been possible without the support of research grants given by the Fonds de recherche du Québec - Société et culture as well as the University of Ottawa. The workshops and seminars organized by the Religion and Diversity Project at the University of Ottawa also provided rewarding opportunities to advance the reflection of this thesis. Early drafts of chapters of this thesis were also presented at conferences organized by the Japanese Studies Association of Canada, where I received numerous suggestions and comments in a most friendly atmosphere. Thanks to the Ministry of Education of Japan, who funded research for this thesis conducted at Kyoto University. I must acknowledge the generosity of Professor Akio Tanabe, my host, and to the numerous Kyodai students who have helped me gather material and translate Japanese sources. Special thanks to those who have welcomed and taken care of my family and me through the years in Japan, notably our beloved host families in Monbetsu and Okimachi. Thanks to all the Japanese friends and acquaintances who have agreed to share their thoughts on the themes of relevance for this thesis, and for guiding me though the various sites that bear special significance for its topic, from neighbourhood Buddhist temples, to the Ise and Yasukuni Shrines, to the Kamikaze and A-bomb museums. This has helped me understand the emotional charge that lies at the interface of religion, politics, and history in Japan. Merci à ma collègue et amie Hélène Thibault, avec qui j’ai partagé de nombreuses heures au ‘bureau’ des Archives. Tes encouragements et ta propre détermination m’ont aidé à persévérer. Merci à mes employeurs au ‘BCC’ de m’avoir offert les encouragements et la iii flexibilité nécessaire pour faire avancer ce projet. Un merci spécial à mon ami, et ex- employeur, David Doloreux, pour le soutien et les opportunités qui m’ont permis de passer à travers les premières années de ce projet. Un immense merci également à la famille proche qui a offert le soutien et le réconfort dont nous avions besoin cette dernière année, et qui, au final, font que j’ai pu terminer cette thèse. Finalement, merci aux trois faisceaux de lumière qui éclairent ma vie, et à qui cette thèse est dédiée, Katarina, Marguerite et Léopold. On se promet d’aller célébrer ça, dans un petit moment, aux abords de la rivière Kamogawa… iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................... III CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 THE IMPACT OF INSTITUTIONAL AMBIGUITY ......................................................................................... 6 1.2 CONTRIBUTION ....................................................................................................................................11 1.3 METHOD AND SCOPE ............................................................................................................................14 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ............................................................................................................20 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..............................24 2.1 RESEARCH GAPS IN THE LITERATURE ON RELIGION AND POLITICS IN JAPAN ........................................24 2.2 COMPARATIVE SECULARISM ................................................................................................................28 2.3 NEW INSTITUTIONALISM ......................................................................................................................63 CHAPTER 3: THE FOUNDATIONS OF JAPAN’S SECULAR REGIME ..........................................78 3.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: RELIGION AND POLITICS IN MODERN JAPAN ............................................78 3.2 THE TRANSITION TOWARDS SECULARISM ............................................................................................94 3.3 THE BIRTH OF JAPAN’S POSTWAR CONSTITUTION ..............................................................................101 3.4 EARLY DEBATES ABOUT THE SECULAR CLAUSES ...............................................................................109 3.5 THE MIXED ODDS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECULARISM ...............................................................117 3.6 PROLOGUE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SECULAR REGIME IN THE POSTWAR ERA ..........................121 CHAPTER 4: DIMENSION 1: STATE SHINTO AND THE ‘RELIGION’ AMBIGUITY ..............124 4.1 THE MAINTENANCE OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTION ...........................................................................126 4.2 THE SHINTO ESTABLISHMENT ............................................................................................................133 4.3 THE COURTS’ ROLE ............................................................................................................................139 4.4 THE 2012 LDP DRAFT CONSTITUTION PROPOSAL ..............................................................................146 CHAPTER 5: SOKA GAKKAI, KOMEITO AND THE ‘POLITICAL AUTHORITY’ CLAUSE ..149 5.1 THE POLITICAL FORCE OF NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS ....................................................................151 5.2 THE POLITICS OF ‘SEPARATION’ .........................................................................................................160 5.3 KOMEITO AND THE ‘POLITICAL AUTHORITY’ CLAUSE ........................................................................168 5.4 ON THE ‘ORIGINAL INTENT’ OF AMERICAN DRAFTERS. ......................................................................178 CHAPTER 6: THE GLOBAL OUTLOOK OF JAPANESE SECULARISM .....................................187 6.1 THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE SECULAR REGIME ......................................................................187 6.2 THE CLARITY AND COHESION OF THE SECULAR REGIME.....................................................................189 6.3 THE SUBSTANCE OF JAPANESE SECULARISM ......................................................................................193 6.4 REFLECTION ON CIVIL RELIGION IN JAPAN .........................................................................................207 6.5 JAPANESE SECULARISM: FROM SEPARATION TO RECOGNITION? .........................................................211 CHAPTER 7: THEORETICAL DISCUSSION .....................................................................................215 7.1 NEW INSTITUTIONALISM ....................................................................................................................215 7.2 THE HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BARRIERS TO SECULARISM ............................................................224 7.3 AMBIGUITY 1 - THE ‘POLITICAL AUTHORITY’ CLAUSE .......................................................................233 7.4 AMBIGUITY 2 - RELIGION ..................................................................................................................239