Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K. Rajeevan Commercial Orchids Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K. Rajeevan Commercial Orchids Managing Editor: Magdalena Golachowska Language Editor: Emefa Monu Published by De Gruyter Open Ltd, Warsaw/Berlin Part of Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Munich/Boston This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 license, which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided credit is given to the author. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/. Copyright © 2014 Lakshman Chandra De, Promila Pathak, A.N. Rao, P.K. Rajeevan ISBN (paperback): 978-3-11-042638-0 ISBN (hardcover): 978-3-11-042638-0 e-ISBN: 978-3-11-042640-3 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche National­­­ bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. Managing Editor: Magdalena Golachowska Language Editor: Emefa Monu www.degruyteropen.com Cover illustration: © Lakshman Chandra De Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 Global Orchid Industry 13 2.1 Global Orchid Trade 13 2.2 Trend in Growth 16 2.2.1 Cymbidium 16 2.2.2 Dendrobium 16 2.2.3 Phalaenopsis 17 2.2.4 Other Tropical Orchids 18 3 Biodiversity, Conservation and Bio-piracy of Genetic Resources in India 20 3.1 Region Wise Distribution of Orchids 20 3.1.1 Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India 20 3.1.1.1 Endemic Orchids 20 3.1.2 North-Western Himalayas 22 3.1.3 Peninsular India 23 3.1.4 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 29 3.2 Conservation of Orchid Genetic Resources 29 3.2.1 Legislative Measures of Conservation 29 3.2.2 In Situ Conservation 30 3.2.2.1 Biosphere Reserve 30 3.2.2.2 National Parks 31 3.2.2.3 Sacred Groves 31 3.2.2.4 Gene Sanctuary 31 3.2.2.5 Individual Trees 31 3.2.3 Ex situ Conservation 33 3.2.3.1 Field Gene Banks 34 3.2.3.2 Botanical Gardens 34 3.2.3.3 Herbal Gardens 34 3.2.3.4 Orchid Seed Gene Bank 34 3.2.3.5 In vitro Conservation 35 3.2.3.6 Cryo-preservation 35 3.3 Bio-piracy 35 3.3.1 Legal Regime Pertaining to Biodiversity and Bio-piracy 36 3.3.1.1 International Law 36 3.3.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (1994) 36 3.3.1.3 Cartagena Protocol (2003) 37 3.3.1.4 Nagoya Protocol (2010) 37 3.3.1.5 CITES 1972 37 3.3.2 Traditional Knowledge (TK) Bio-piracy 37 3.3.2.1 Collection and Use 37 3.3.2.2 Patenting 38 3.3.3 Genetic Resource Bio-piracy 38 3.3.3.1 Collection and Use 38 3.3.3.2 Patenting 38 3.3.4 Measures of Bio-piracy in Some Orchids 38 4 Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Valuable species 40 4.1 Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Vanda 40 4.1.1 Subject 40 4.1.2 Plant Material Required 40 4.1.3 Conduct of Tests 41 4.1.4 Methods and Observations 41 4.1.5 Grouping of Varieties 42 4.1.6 Characteristics and Symbols 42 4.1.7 Explanations on the Table of Characteristics 53 4.2 Phalaenopsis (PVJ, Nov, 2012) 53 4.2.1 Subject 53 4.2.2 Plant Material Required 54 4.2.3 Conduct of Test 54 4.2.4 Methods and Observations 54 4.2.5 Grouping of Varieties 55 4.2.6 Characteristics and Symbols 55 4.2.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics 78 4.2.7.1 Guidelines for Recording the Observations of Vegetative and Flowering Characteristics 78 4.2.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics 78 4.3 Cattleya Lindl. (PVJ, Nov, 2012) 83 4.3.1 Subject 83 4.3.2 Plant Material Required 83 4.3.3 Conduct of Test 83 4.3.4 Methods and Observations 84 4.3.5 Grouping of Varieties 84 4.3.6 Characteristics and Symbols 85 4.3.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics 97 4.3.7.1 Guidelines for Recording the Observations of Vegetative and Flowering Characteristics 97 4.3.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics 97 4.4 Molecular Characterization of Valuable Species 100 4.4.1 Isozyme Analysis 100 4.4.2 DNA Finger Printing 100 4.4.2.1 Classical Hybridization Based Finger Printing 100 4.4.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Based Finger Printing 100 4.4.2.2.1 RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorhic DNA) 101 4.4.2.2.2 SPAR (Single SSR Primer Amplification Reaction) 101 4.4.2.2.3 DAF (DNA Amplification Fingerprinting) 101 4.4.2.2.4 AP-PCR (Arbitrary Primed Polymerase Chain Reaction) 101 4.4.2.2.5 RAMPO (Randomly Amplified Microsatellite Polymorphisms) 101 4.4.2.2.6 AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) 101 4.4.2.2.7 ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeat Markers) 101 4.4.2.2.8 Mitochondrial Analysis 102 4.4.2.3 Uses of DNA Finger Printing 102 5 Breeding Approaches for Improved Genotypes 103 5.1 Cytogenetics 103 5.2 Pollination and Fertilization 103 5.3 Natural Hybridization 104 5.4 Artificial Hybridization 105 5.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids 105 5.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids 106 5.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids 107 5.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids 107 5.4.5 Hexageneric Hybrids 107 5.5 Mutagenesis 107 5.6 Breeding Objectives 108 5.7 Selection of Parents 108 5.8 Compatibility Analysis 109 5.9 Breeding of Hybrids 109 5.9.1 Cattleya 109 5.9.2 Cymbidium 110 5.9.3 Dendrobium 111 5.9.4 Odontoglossum 112 5.9.5 Oncidium 112 5.9.6 Paphiopedilum 113 5.9.7 Phalaenopsis 113 5.9.8 Vanda 114 5.10 Polyploidy Breeding 115 5.11 Genetic Engineering 116 6 Production of Quality Planting Materials 118 6.1 Division 118 6.2 Back Bulbs 118 6.3 Cuttings 118 6.4 Air layering 119 6.5 Keiki 119 6.6 Aerial Shoots 120 6.7 Tubers 120 6.8 Tissue Culture 120 6.8.1 Shoot Tip Culture 121 6.8.2 Meristem –tip Culture 121 6.9 Seed Culture 121 6.9.1 Flasking and Reflasking of Protocorms 122 6.9.2 Composting and Repotting Seedlings 123 6.10 Production of Disease Free Planting Materials Through Micro- Propagation 123 7 Physiology of Temperate and Tropical Orchids 124 7.1 Leaves 124 7.2 Stem and Roots 125 7.2.1 Monopodial 125 7.2.2 Sympodial 125 7.2.3 Terrestrial orchids 125 7.3 Flower 125 7.4 Pollination 126 7.5 Fruits and Seeds 127 7.6 Photosynthesis 127 7.6.1 C3-Photosynthesis 127 7.6.2 C4-Photosynthesis: 127 7.6.3 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) 127 7.7 CO2 Enrichment and Orchid Growth 128 7.7.1 Practical Aspects of CO2 Enrichment 128 7.8 Growth Physiology Stages in Cymbidium Orchids 129 7.8.1 Stage I: Flower Bud Initiation in the New Growth 129 7.8.2 Stage II: Flower Spike Initiation 130 7.8.3 Stage III: Spike Elongation and Blooming 131 7.9 Conclusions & Extensions 131 7.10 Orchid Pseudobulbs – A Genuine Importance in Orchid Growth and Survival 132 7.10.1 Pseudobulbs – As Water Storage Organs 132 7.10.2 Pseudobulbs – As Mineral Storage Organs 133 7.10.3 Pseudobulb Photosynthesis 133 7.10.4 Pseudobulbs – as Carbohydrate Storage Organs 134 7.10.5 The Absence of a ‘Flag’ Leaf’ – an Apparent Anomaly Due to the Pseudobulb 135 7.10.6 Pseudobulbs and Myrmecophily 135 8 Climate Change and its Impact on Orchid Productivity 138 8.1 Impact of Climate Change (Mitchell and Tanner, 2006) 138 8.1.1 Agriculture 138 8.1.2 Water Resources 138 8.1.3 Forests 139 8.1.4 Biodiversity 139 8.1.5 Weather Extremes 139 8.1.6 Sea Levels and Coastal Areas 139 8.1.7 Human Population 139 8.1.8 Human Health 139 8.2 Actions 140 8.3 Challenges 141 8.3.1 Biodiversity and Conservation 141 8.3.2 Genetic Improvement 142 8.3.3 Frontier Science Technologies In Orchid Research and Development 142 8.3.4 Management of Natural Resources 143 8.3.5 Post Harvest and Value Addition 143 8.3.6 Bio-Risk Management 143 8.3.7 Policies 144 8.3.8 Transfer of Technology 144 8.4 Impact Assessment 144 9 Production Technology of Commercial Epiphytic Orchids for Cut flowers 149 9.1 Cymbidium (Orchidaceae) 149 9.1.1 Introduction 149 9.1.2 Botanical Description 149 9.1.3 Classification 150 9.1.4 World Scenario 150 9.1.5 Importance and Uses 151 9.1.5.1 Cut flowers 151 9.1.5.2 Potted Plants 151 9.1.5.3 Hanging Baskets 152 9.1.5.4 Herbal Medicines 152 9.1.5.5 Stylish Packaging 152 9.1.6 Varieties (De, 2014) 152 9.1.7 Growing Requirements 153 9.1.7.1 Light 153 9.1.7.2 Temperature 153 9.1.7.3 Propagation 153 9.1.7.4 Watering 154 9.1.7.5 Relative Humidity 154 9.1.7.6 Air Circulation 154 9.1.7.7 Feeding 154 9.1.7.8 Potting and Repotting 154 9.1.7.9 Planting 155 9.1.7.10 Training 155 9.1.7.11 Harvest 155 9.1.8 Insects Pests and Diseases 155 9.1.8.1 Insect Pests 155 9.1.8.2 Diseases 156 9.1.9 Post-harvest Management 157 9.1.9.1 Stage of Harvest 157 9.1.9.2 Grading 157 9.1.9.3 Packing 158 9.1.9.4 Storage 158 9.1.9.5 Floral Preservatives 158 9.2 Dendrobium (Orchidaceae) 158 9.2.1 Introduction 158 9.2.2 Botanical Descriptions 158 9.2.3 Importance and Uses 160 9.2.4 Hybrids (De, 2014) 160 9.2.5 Growth and Physiology 161 9.2.6 Cultivation 161 9.2.6.1 Temperature 161 9.2.6.2 Light 162 9.2.6.3 Propagation 162 9.2.6.4 Atmosphere 162 9.2.6.5 Fertilization 162 9.2.6.6 Potting Mixture 163 9.2.6.7 Watering and Humidity 163 9.2.6.8 Repotting 163 9.2.6.9 Application of Growth Regulators 164 9.2.7 Post-harvest Management 164 9.2.7.1 Harvest 164 9.2.7.2 Pre-cooling 164 9.2.7.3 Pulsing 165 9.2.7.4 Bud Opening 165 9.2.7.5 Preservatives 165 9.2.7.6 Grading 166 9.2.7.7 Packaging 166 9.2.7.8 Storage 167 9.2.8 Value addition 167 9.2.8.1 Tinting 167 9.2.8.2 Preparation of Bouquet 168 9.3 Phalaenopsis (Orchidaceae) 168 9.3.1 Introduction 168 9.3.2 Botanical Description 168 9.3.3 Importance and Uses 169 9.3.4 Hybrids (De, 2014) 169 9.3.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids 170 9.3.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids 170 9.3.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids 170 9.3.4.4 Pentageneric