IN SEARCH OF EUROPE IDEAS OF EUROPE FROM A CENTRAL EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE, 1918-PRESENT Mare van den Eeden A DISSERTATION in History Presented to the Faculties of the Central European University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Budapest, Hungary 2015 Supervisor: Constantin Iordachi CEU eTD Collection Copyright in the text of this dissertation rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or part, may be made only in accordance with the instructions given by the Author and lodged in the Central European Library. Details may be obtained from the librarian. This page must form a part of any such copies made. Further copies made in accordance with such instructions may not be made without the written permission of the Author. I hereby declare that the dissertation contains no materials accepted for any other degrees in any other institutions and no materials previously written and/or published by another person unless otherwise noted. CEU eTD Collection iii Brief Summary In Search of Europe: The Idea of Europe from a Central European Perspective, 1918-present This dissertation focuses on the idea of Europe from a Central European perspective. In a field fixated on Western ideas relegating Central and Eastern Europe to the status of catching-up periphery, it aims to map Central European narratives of and for Europe as a whole. I claim that the peculiar history of Central Europe has led to the specific way of seeing and understanding Europe, its history and its future. During the last quarter of a century this ‘Central European Idealism’, as I call it, has generated important contributions to the debates on pan-European self-perception and the continent’s future trajectory. In my view, however, it is impossible to make sense of these assertions without resorting to the history of the idea of Europe in Central Europe’s tumultuous twentieth century. Understanding Central Europe as a modern self-perception of the peoples concerned, an area of intensive communication and subject to similar historical experiences, the CEU eTD Collection first part of my examination, therefore, seeks to identify trends and traditions in thinking about Europe in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia during the short twentieth century. Differentiating between a historical and a philosophical iv model, it offers a glimpse into the overall intellectual history of Central Europe treating important systems of thought that indeed do not always explicitly contain the term Europe. Yet, as I show, Europe was and remained one of the central themes of reflection and self-consciousness of Central European intellectuals, even at times their gaze turned East. In the second part of my thesis, I focus on three Central European intellectuals whose lives span the second half of the twentieth century and who have become vocal contributors to debates on Europe since the 1990s: the sociologist Zygmunt Bauman, the writer Imre Kertész, and the philosopher Slavoj Žižek. They have their intellectual roots in three Central European perspectives on Europe discussed in the first chapter. Bauman belonged to the Polish group of Marxist humanists trying to change the communist political system from within. Kertész is a Holocaust survivor. His experiences in the concentration camps and in communist Hungary are key when formulating ideas of Europe. Žižek was part of the ‘antipolical’ scene: the New Left in Slovenia. Aiming my attention at the interdependence between their works and life, I analyse Europe as lived experience. I hold that biography serves as a source of explanation, reflection, and criticism when formulating concepts of Europe. It offers insights into ideas of Europe from a Central European perspective that other approaches cannot generate. Through this approach I am able to show how the experience of both fascism/Nazism CEU eTD Collection and communism has led to a specific interpretation of Europe that builds on the concepts of modernity, the value of European civilisation, humanism, and the Enlightenment tradition. Indeed, these notions are central to Western European ideas v of Europe, but lost much of their attractiveness in the wake of poststructuralism, postmodernism, and postcolonialism. My research demonstrates that in Central Europe an innovative and original view of Europe has been formulated, shaped by a specific understanding and interpretation of modernity and the Enlightenment, notably its ideals of freedom, individuality, and democracy. This is what I call ‘Central European Idealism’. CEU eTD Collection vi To Justus companion and collaborator CEU eTD Collection vii Acknowledgements This doctoral thesis would not have seen the light of day without the financial support of the Hungarian Scholarship Board and the Central European University, for which I am intensely grateful. I am also greatly indebted to my supervisor Constantin Iordachi, who supported this project from the beginning and whose suggestions have proved extremely beneficial in finalizing this manuscript. Special thanks too to Marsha Siefert who encouraged me in difficult times and whose advice was always much appreciated. And to Michael Wintle (University of Amsterdam) for his advice and support at the beginning of this project. I owe much to Luka Lisjak Gabrijelčič whose input on the chapter on Slavoj Žižek was invaluable. And I am also especially grateful to Emily Gioielli, Ilse Josepha Lazaroms, Caroline Marburger, and Ilona Roberts for their friendship and for the many discussions we had during our joint time in Budapest and after. I shall never forget Kacper Pobłocki for introducing me to CEU and Budapest and Ferenc Laczó and his family for offering me a place at their home. CEU eTD Collection In Germany, where it all started, I should like to thank Heinz Duchhardt at the Instut für Europäische Geschichte in Mainz. I have benefitted a great deal from the conversations and discussions with many friends and scholars at the institute. These include: Kerstin Armborst, Maria Baramova, Joachim Berger, Christian Domnitz, viii Gábor Kármán, Rudolf Kučera, Frauke Michler, Małgorzata Morawiec, and Peter Seelmann. Many thanks go out too to Rainer Hudemann and Wolfgang Behringer for hosting me during a research stay at the Saarland University in Saarbrücken. The intellectual origins of this project, then, are to be found at the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Maastricht University and I will remain eternally grateful to Heleen Pott and Arnold Labrie for sowing the seed of critical thinking and intellectual curiosity. Niki Vermeulen is a friend ever since I met her there. Finally, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my parents and mother-in- law for making my life easier and watching after the children, particularly in the last phase of this research. And to Justus Nipperdey, for going down this road with me, for sheltering me, for putting up with me and my inquiries over the past years, and for so much more. CEU eTD Collection ix Table of Contents In Search of Europe: The Idea of Europe from a Central European Perspective, 1918-present. Brief Summary ............................................................................... iii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. vii Introduction: In Search of Europe ......................................................................... 1 Introduction: .......................................................................................................................................................... 2 The Modern Idea of Europe ............................................................................................................................. 7 The Modern Idea of Europe & the Dialectic of Enlightenment: Bauman, Kertész and Žižek . 14 Ideas of Europe from a Central European Perspective: Methodology ............................................. 18 Male, White, Eurocentric? ............................................................................................................................. 25 Chapter I: The Idea of Europe from a Central European Perspective, 1918-1990 28 Introduction: ....................................................................................................................................................... 28 The Historical Model and the Philosophical Model ............................................................................. 30 Outlining the chapter ......................................................................................................................................... 34 I.I Nation, Region, Europe: The Interwar Period ............................................................................... 37 Central Europe as a Political Project ......................................................................................................... 37 Defining Europe: Discussions of Identity and Belonging .................................................................. 44 Halecki, Bibó, Kocbek ....................................................................................................................................... 49 I.II The years of hope and despair, 1945-1968 .................................................................................. 59 A Plurality of Views, 1945-1948 ................................................................................................................... 59 Stalin’s Rule over