CHRONOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE URASHIMA TARŌ STORY AND ITS INTERPRETATION By Yoshihiko Holmes A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Japanese Victoria University of Wellington 2014 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract PART ONE General Introduction CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1 CHAPTER 2: Overview of the Literature 4 PART TWO: Analysis, from the Asuka Period (593-710 CE) to the Heian Period (794-1185 CE). CHAPTER 3: Asuka, Hakuhō and Nara Periods (710-784 CE) 11 CHAPTER 4: Heian Period (794-1185 CE) 40 PART THREE: Analysis, from the Muromachi Period (1392-1573 CE) to the Shōwa Period (1926-1989 CE). CHAPTER 5: Muromachi Period (1392-1573 CE) 53 CHAPTER 6: Edo Period (1603-1867 CE) 66 CHAPTER 7: Meiji Period (1868-1912 CE) to Post Second World War 74 PART FOUR: Conclusions CHAPTER 8: Overall conclusions 92 APPENDIX 1 Translations: The Urashima story translated sources 109 iii References: 157 Bibliographies: 168 iv ABSTRACT The present thesis examines the evolution of the Urashima story. In modern Japan traditional Japanese tales have been presented in the form of illustrated books for young children. It is generally regarded that these tales contain common motifs or moral lessons; however, the Urashima story, one of the most well-known stories in Japan, seems to differ greatly from other folktales. Scholars believe that the Urashima story was a popular pre-written orality-based story among the coastal dwelling ama group of people in ancient times in Japan. The introduction of a writing system from China made it possible to record the Urashima story as a written text. However, the first recorded version of the Urashima story, putatively in the late seventh century, was quite different from later versions in terms of plot, purpose and the characters. The ideology of immortality, suggesting Chinese Daoist origins, was the main purpose of the story for several centuries, overlain by Buddhist influences. The present study finds that the major turning point in the tale from an orality- based story to a literary text was in Otogizōshi in the Muromachi Period (14th–16th centuries), when people still seemed to be attuned to orality-based puns and the satirical and witty use of word plays through the exchange of songs. During the ensuing Edo Period, the Urashima story was transformed into a book for reading material. It changed at this time due to social developments, such as the widespread manufacture of paper and the technological development of woodblock printing. A shift in its themes and motifs such as immortality to Buddhist and social moral lessons occurred along with changing the cultural values of society, increase in literacy, and the appearance of new genres of literature and their writers in the Edo Period. The establishment of the formal compulsory education system in the Meiji Period, accompanied by a shift in readership from educated adults to school children, further changed the story and its purpose, and resulted in the standardisation of the Urashima Tarō story that is well known today. Much of the well-known content of the current Urashima story in modern day Japan has appeared only within the last 150 years. v Therefore, from this thesis it is apparent that the Urashima story evolved as a reflection of Japanese society’s changing views. In short, this study identifies and analyses significant changes to the original recorded story that have appeared over the past fourteen hundred years. vi PART ONE General Introduction CHAPTER 1: Introduction The Urashima story is one of the most well-known stories in Japan, and it is generally regarded as a folktale for young children that in modern times has been presented in the form of an illustrated book that tells a traditional Japanese tale. Briefly summarised, Urashima Tarō rescues a turtle on the beach and is then invited by the turtle to a palace under the sea in return for his kindness. Urashima Tarō enjoys hospitality at the Sea Palace and spends a few days there, but finally he wishes to go home, so the Princess gives him a mysterious treasure box which he is told not to open. When Urashima Tarō returns to the real world, he cannot find his family because a few hundred years have elapsed. The curious Urashima Tarō opens the treasure box and white smoke puffs out of it, transforming him into an old man. These folktales or mythological types of stories usually have a motif or theme such as “good or bad”, “greedy or modest”, “generous or mean” or “success or failure”. In short, many such stories that include or contain these types of motifs offer some moral or ethical lessons. It is unclear what moral the Urashima Tarō story really conveys to us. This story’s ending is quite different from many other popular folktales in Japan, and differs somewhat from version to version. In order to analyse and clarify this, the present research will focus on several aspects of the story. For example, it is not clear whether Urashima Tarō is a child or an adult, what the significance is of the big turtle which Urashima rescues, and what the significance is of Urashima Tarō spending time under the ocean carousing with a group of women. Also why is Urashima Tarō given a mysterious treasure chest type of box which he is told not to open, and when he does, why does the box produce smoke and turn him into an old man? Having saved the turtle, does he deserve to become an old man? The ending of this story is quite abrupt and is not the typical happy ending of myths or folktales in Japan or other parts of the world. What is the significance of this? Therefore, the aims of this thesis are to identify (1) how the Urashima story evolved from the pre-written-text times to modern times, (2) why the story changed, 1 and what influenced the authors to change the storyline from previous versions, (3) how the Urashima Tarō story has been passed on from generation to generation in Japan and (4) how the Japanese people have chronologically interpreted and understood the story. It is widely believed among Japanese scholars that the history of the Urashima story traces back to the Nara Period (710-784 CE)1 or before. In addition, the Urashima story is believed to have been an oral story before it was recorded and that it might relate to the ancient ama group of coastal-dwelling people. The Urashima stories contain similar motifs or threads, and characters from an early period of time. However, what contemporary Japanese people know about the story in general differs from earlier versions. This could be a geographical issue as there are a variety of versions existing all over Japan. However, even in the same location, such as in Tokyo, are quite different from previous versions, particularly in regards to the thread, motifs and characters; and embellishment or additions by the author may be a factor in this. Methodology for this thesis will be firstly to provide a recent scholarly commentary in the literature reviewed. This will be followed by a brief historical overview, comparison of versions and analysis of motifs, characters and ideologies. Diagrams of the tale’s development will be presented in order to clarify how the Urashima story has changed over time. Finally, a translation of noteworthy versions from various historical periods will be provided in Appendix 1, in order that readers of English may follow the developments. The present study addresses fifteen versions of the Urashima story, classifying them into twenty-eight categories in Table 1, in order to analyse their lineages, their chronological relationships and development, and thereby seek an interpretation through comparison and contrast among them (see overall conclusion). These categories are derived from the main characters in the story, and identify the key elements of the story in each version, to highlight the clear and significant differences among the Urashima versions. In addition, historical background of each Japanese literary period will be briefly outlined to further explain aspects of Japanese literary development and cultural growth which could have influenced the development of the story. However, issues were identified whereby the recorded versions of the Urashima text do not necessarily match the time of publication, highlighting a time gap between 1 Shimmura, 1993, 1930. 2 the completion time of some recorded texts and their publication. To avoid this problematic gap, the putative timing of the recorded text of the Urashima story will be focused on in this study rather than the compilation of the book or of publication time of the same text, so that the evolution of the Urashima story can be analysed chronologically purely on the basis of the timing of the recorded text. By this means, identification of lineage development from the previous version, how the Urashima story developed, and later embellishments will be considered. Based on the Japanese periodization system of the Urashima story lineage development, the present study is divided into five, Part One: General Introduction, Part Two: Analysis, from the Asuka Period (593-710 CE)2 to the Heian Period (794-1185 CE),3 Part Three is from the Muromachi Period (1392-1573 CE)4 to the Shōwa Period (1926-1989 CE).5 And Part Four is conclusion including Translation in Appendix 1. Part Two analysis is relatively complicated due to the various time discrepancies, and also the appearance of the same story names, so Diagram 1 is provided in order to understand the lineage development more clearly and in order to follow the development of influential texts.