University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/63697 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. Black Diamonds: Coal, the Royal Navy, and British Imperial Coaling Stations, circa 1870−1914. Steven Gray A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History University of Warwick, Department of History March 2014 Table of Contents List of Figures 4 Acknowledgements 7 Declaration 8 Abstract 9 Abbreviations 10 Chapter 1: Introduction 11 Structure 18 Notes on sources 25 Chapter 2: Historiography 30 Historiography of the Royal Navy, c.1870−1914 31 Empire and the Sea 41 Global history 56 Conclusions 64 Chapter 3: The Rise of Coal Consciousness: 66 Imperial Philosophies, Knowledge, and Bureaucracy Development of Pro-Imperial Politics and Coal Consciousness 72 The Colonial Defence Committee 79 The Establishment of the Carnarvon Commission 83 The Recommendations of the Commission 87 The Last Hurrah of Gladstonian Liberalism 109 The Resurgence of the Coal and Imperial Defence Question 116 Legacy of a Coaling Consensus 136 1 Chapter 4: The Development of a Coaling Infrastructure 141 Sourcing Coal for the Navy at Home 144 Sourcing Coal for the Navy Abroad 156 Contracts 169 At the Station 182 Stresses and Failures in Coaling Infrastructure 193 Conclusions 204 Chapter 5: Coaling Labour 206 Systems of Coaling 208 Naval Labour 221 Non-naval labour 229 Dangers of Coaling 245 Conclusions 247 Chapter 6: Sojourning at the Coaling Station 249 The Sailors’ Experience of the Coaling Station 252 Interactions with Non-Western Local Populations 255 Interactions with other ‘Westerners’ 263 Prostitutes and Alcohol 287 Conclusions 296 Chapter 7: Conclusions 299 Politics and Geostrategy 300 Infrastructure and Supply 303 Labour and Coaling Methods 305 Local Encounters 307 2 Wider Conclusions 310 Further directions 312 Bibliography 314 3 List of Figures and Tables Figure 1.1: ‘The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to Her Last Berth to Be Broken Up’, 11 by J.M.W. Turner, 1839. Figure 1.2: British coaling stations used by the Royal Navy, 1870−1914. 15 Figure 1.3: Map showing British coaling stations in relation to those of foreign 20 powers, 1870−1914. Figure 3.1: ‘Track Chart of the World Showing Naval Stations, 1879’. 96 Figure 3.2: Map showing European possessions and distances between 96 stations in the pacific, produced for the Carnarvon Commission, 1879−1882. Figure 3.3: Map showing commission recommendations for Port Louis, 97 Mauritius, produced for the Carnarvon Commission, 1879−1882. Figure 3.4: ‘Chart of the World Shewing Approximately the Magnitude and 100 Distribution of the Direct Trade of the United Kingdom with British Possessions and Foreign Countries out of Europe’. Produced for the Carnarvon Commission, 1879−1882. Figure 4.1: Reports from testing on coals for the navy, 1899. 150 Figure 4.2: Contract for patent fuel for St Paul de Loana (Angola), 1885. 154 Figure 4.3: Table showing native coals found local to British naval stations, and 159 which coals were actually used by the Royal Navy in the years 1882−1883. Figure 4.4: Total coal exported to British naval stations, 1891−1904. 166 Figure 4.5: Actual consumption by H.M. ships, 1891−1904. 167 Figure 4.6: Tons of coal exported from selected British ports 1873−1895. 169 Figure 4.7: Coal tendering form, 1906. 173 Figure 4.8: Map showing coal markets in 1903. 179 Figure 4.9: Advert for tenders for coaling contracts for the Australasian stations, 1887. 181 Figure 4.10: Form returned by stations informing of the coaling situation, 1882. 188 Figure 4.11: Drawing of Yokohama coaling station included with forms sent to the 190 Admiralty, 1882. Figure 4.12: Form D-609 annual demand for coals, 1884. 191 4 Figure 4.13: Chart showing additions to or reductions in stocks of coal at naval 193 stations, 1891−1904. Figure 4.14: Front page of the London Illustrated News featuring the Samoan 200 tragedy, 1889. Figure 4.15: The route taken by the Russian Baltic Fleet in 1905. 207 Figure 5.1: Simon's Town coaling station c.1900. 209 Figure 5.2: Coaling H.M.S. Charybdis at from a jetty at H.M. Dockyard, Halifax 210 c.1901−1902. Figure 5.3: Coaling the H.M.C.S. Niobe from a lighter or barge alongside 212 c.1910−1914. Figure 5.4: A steam coaling barge fitted with four Temperley Transporters 214 c.1900. Figure 5.5: Officers and ratings prepare coal sacks to be hoisted aboard, 215 unknown date. Figure 5.6: Coaling H.M.S. Natal c.1915. 216 Figure 5.7: Scrubbing the decks of H.M.S. Goliath after coaling, c.1900−1915. 219 Figure 5.8: ‘New Method of Coaling Warships at Sea’, 1900. 221 Figure 5.9: The Marine band of H.M.S. Prince George playing during coaling 225 c.1900. Figure 5.10: Portrait of John 'Dinkum' Minogue, the 'ship's clown' of H.M.A.S. 227 Melbourne, wearing fancy dress during coaling, 1915. Figure 5.11: The record breaking crew of H.M.S. Caesar, who coaled at over 200 229 tons an hour from a collier, c.1900−1903. Figure 5.12: Coaling alongside the new mole at Gibraltar, 1898. 233 Figure 5.13: Local heavers coaling the Balantia in St Lucia in 1911. 240 Figure 5.14: ‘Recruited local labour spares H.M.A.S. Melbourne’s men the 241 chore of coaling at Martinique, c.1915’. Figure 5.15: Large coaling basket used in Bermuda. 242 Figure 5.16: ‘Female Labour and the Fleet’, 1899. 244 Figure 6.1: Local people coming aboard a warship, c.1900. 256 Figure 6.2: A sailor’s photo of fruit for sale at a market in Kingston, Jamaica c.1900. 258 Figure 6.3: Royal Navy rugby game in Halifax, c.1900. 266 5 Figure 6.4: British naval officers playing golf in Crete, 1899. 267 Figure 6.5: Happy Valley, 1895. 269 Figure 6.6: Sports results recorded in ship’ logs, c.1905−1907. 270 Figure 6.7: The Sailor's Home in Simon's Town, c.1900. 271 Figure 6.8: Visitors aboard H.M.S. New Zealand in Wellington, 1913. 273 Figure 6.9: The theatre of the Royal Navy Canteen, Malta, 1899. 274 Figure 6.10: An advert for a theatrical performance by British sailors on the 275 China Station, c.1900. Figure 6.11: Using local transport on the China Station c.1900. 282 Figure 6.12: An elephant photographed in Ceylon, c.1900. 284 Figure 6.13: A Venezuelan deer adopted by several British sailors, c.1900. 287 Figure 6.14: Primary syphilis infection rate (per 1000) on British naval stations, 291 1868−1913. 6 Acknowledgements I have been immensely lucky to be associated with three august institutions during my PhD. I am immensely grateful to Royal Holloway, University of London, where I began my studies, and I am particularly in debt to the London Group of Historical Geographers, who helped to broaden my horizons during this time. The University of Warwick, where I completed this thesis, have also been enormously helpful, both in terms of opportunities and in financial support. Finally, I have been privileged to work with the National Maritime Museum, which has offered me opportunities to present my work, access to documents, and financial support. This thesis would not have been possible without funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council which has allowed me to study full time whilst completing this thesis. I am also grateful to the Warwick Humanities Research Fund and the Royal Historical Society for funding to present at conferences around the country. I owe an enormous debt to my supervisors, Dr David Lambert and Dr Robert Blyth, who have been constant sources of expertise, guidance, and most importantly, patience throughout. Despite being incredibly busy, both have always been on hand to support me in my many times of need. I am also grateful to Prof. Huw Bowen, who pushed me throughout my time as an undergraduate and master’s student, and was instrumental in me starting a PhD. Many academics have taken time out of their hugely busy schedules to share their knowledge on a wide range of subjects throughout my research. Of these, I am particularly grateful to Prof. Trevor Boyns, who not only answered many questions about Welsh coal, but also allowed me to contribute towards several papers. I am also in debt to the knowledge of the archivists and librarians at all the repositories I visited. I have also been fortunate to meet many other PhD students who have been offered invaluable advice about coping with the unique pressures of a PhD, as well as good conversation and coffee. In particular, I am grateful to Aimée, Caroline, and Natalie, all of whom have spent time picking through countless drafts. Many thanks also go to my friends, particularly Sam, Seb, Bish, and Hef, who have often raised my spirits, usually through taking my mind off the thesis with good conversation, sport, and all too often beer. I am also grateful to my family, and in particular my parents, who have encouraged me from an early age to further my knowledge of all manner of things, taken me to museums, and often enabled me to continue studying with financial backing.