THE INDIAN WAY An Introduction to the Philosophies and Religions of India Second Edition John M. Koller First published 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2006, 1982 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permis- sion, in this textbook appear on the appropriate pages. ISBN: 9780131455788 (pbk) Cover Design: Bruce Kenselaar Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Koller, John M. The Indian way : an introduction to the philosophies and religions of India/ John M. Koller.—2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-13-145578-8 1. Philosophy, India. 2. India—Religion. 3. India—Civilization. I. Title. B131.K56 2006 181′.4–dc22 2004022433 Contents 1 Introduction: Diversity, Change, and Continuity 1 2 Roots of the Indian Way: Indus and Vedic Beginnings 19 3 Creation and Celebration in the Vedas 38 4 Liberating Knowledge: The Upanisads 56 5 Self and Society: Norms of Life 79 6 The Jaina Vision 105 7 The Way of the Buddha 128 8 Yoga 163 9 The Bhagavad Gıta 179 10 Devotional Hinduism: God as Joy, Love, and Beauty 201 11 Devotional Hinduism: Kalı and Shiva 220 12 Systematic Philosophy: Bondage, Liberation, and Causality 241 13 Systematic Philosophy: Knowledge and Reality 265 14 Islam in India 286 15 The Faith of the Sikhs 309 16 Renaissance in India 328 17 Prospects for the Future 352 Glossary 369 Index 375 Preface For more than four thousand years, the peoples of the Indian subcontinent have been seeking the deepest truths about the nature of reality and the self, exploring the depths of human consciousness. India’s most brilliant thinkers and sincerest re- ligious seekers have been preoccupied with the quest for perfection, for a way to transform this ordinary, limited, and imperfect existence into its potential great- ness and perfection. Their insights and discoveries have shaped one of the world’s richest and longest-lived cultures. Today, as we seek a wisdom that will enable the peoples of the world to live together securely and well as members of an interdependent global community and that will, at the same time, enable each of us to achieve our fullest personal growth, our need to explore and understand the profound insights of the Indian way is greater than ever. “What am I, in the deepest recesses of my being?” “How can I realize my full human and spiritual potential?” These are the fundamental questions of life for all of us. Because they are also the questions that India’s sages have been pondering for the last four thousand years, an understanding of the Indian way is directly relevant to our attempts to improve our self-understanding and the quality of our lives. Exploring the great ideas of the Indian tradition is a truly exciting intellectual adventure. But it is also an extremely practical adventure, for it will enable us to understand the basis for thinking and acting of one-sixth of the world’s people. Even more importantly, it is a way of holding up a cultural mirror, enabling us to see ourselves, our ideas and values, from a new perspective, thereby providing new insight into our own existence. Writing this book has been simultaneously a way of expressing my gratitude for what I have received from the Indian tradition and a way of exploring this tradi- tion further. The voices of India’s great thinkers, speaking through her rich philo- sophical and religious traditions, have revealed many wonderful secrets of the human heart and mind, enriching my personal existence and illuminating my own culture. This book is a way of sharing what I have received and inviting you to join in the exploration of the Indian way and the process of self-discovery. Throughout, I have attempted to let the Indian way speak for itself, to be its own voice, rather than to express my own opinions. iv Acknowledgments It is impossible to mention everyone who has contributed to The Indian Way, but I would be sorely remiss if I did not express my gratitude to the following people. Among my teachers, Professors S. K. Saksena of the Universities of Lucknow and Hawaii and Charles A. Moore of the University of Hawaii initiated me into In- dian studies, sharing freely their knowledge and wisdom while insisting on the high- est levels of scholarship and philosophical rigor. Professor Kenneth Inada introduced me to the philosopical study of Buddhism, resisting all of my initial attempts to re- duce Buddhism to an Asian version of Western thought. Professor T. R. V. Murti of Banaras Hindu University and Professor Kalidas Bhattacharya of Vishva Bharati University helped me more than they probably realized, both during the six weeks of the 1964 East-West Philosphers’ Conference and, later, when I came to their univer- sities in India. To Professor George Artola I owe my initiation into Sanskrit— without which much of the Indian tradition would remain closed to me. John Schumacher, friend, colleague, and former student, shared in many of the discoveries and much of the excitement that made this book possible. His friendly criticisms—and comments on nearly every page of an earlier draft— improved the text considerably. Ashok Malhotra, good friend since our student days at the East-West Center, has shared many insights into the Indian way. His reading of the manuscript and suggestions for improvements were very helpful. Conversations with Romesh Diwan, a colleague for 35 years, helped shape my un- derstanding of India in untold ways. Isadore Traschen, a colleague in the English Department, made very helpful suggestions concerning both style and substance. David Wieck, Charles Sanford, Dewitt Ellinwood, Theodore Wright, Alok Chakrabarti, J. Uppal, and David Applebaum each shared their reaction to one or more chapters. Rama Rao Pappu and Stephen Kaplan made valuable suggestions for the second edition based on their experiences with the first. Godabara Mishra has generously shared his knowledge of Indian philosophy with me during the many years of our friendship. Finally, special thanks to Mimi for her critical reading of the manuscript, and especially for her love and support. Many students have accompanied me on this journey of self-discovery and pilgrimmage along the Indian way. They have been my teachers as well as my stu- dents, and this book is an expression of my gratitude to them. J.M.K. Great Neck, N.Y. v Chronology B.C.E. EVENTS, PERSONS, TEXTS 3000–1800 Indus (Harappan) civilization in Pakistan and northwest India; sometime during this period, perhaps early, perhaps late, the Rg Veda was com- posed and Vedic civilization flourished in this same area 1500–800 BrahmaΔas and AraΔyakas composed; Par∏va (Jain T¯ırthaΔkara) 800–600 Urbanization; Early Upanisads composed; yoga practiced 600–400 Mahavıra, the Buddha, Carvaka, early Sa∂khya and Yoga; oral versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana; Hindu Devotionalism 400–200 Invasion of Alexander; Mauryan dynasty, beginning with Candragupta; King A∏oka (r. 269–232); beginning of the philosophical systems; dharma, kama and artha ∏astras; Bhagavad Gıta; Mahayana Buddhism 200–0 Many invasions; Su∑ga Dynasty ends (c. 71). Developments in the sciences and medicine; Devotionalism flourishes C.E. 0–200 Spread of Buddhism throughout India and beyond; Nagarjuna; Flourish- ing trade and technological developments; Hinduism and Jainism spread south and west; early cave art at Ajanta 200–800 Gupta dynasty (320–540); flourishing of philosophy, arts and sciences; great commentaries of philosophical systems; Sankara, Guadapada, Va- subandhu, Candrakırtı, Prabhakara, Jayara∏i; Arabs arrive in Sind; begin- nings of Islam in India 1000–1500 Pala dynasty; C¯olas and Pallavas; Muslim rule; Development of theistic philosophies of ∏aivism and vai∏navism; New Nyaya; Hemacandra, Gange∏a, Ibn Sina, Al Ghazali, Ramanuja, Madhva, Kabir, Vacaspati Mi∏ra; Decline of Buddhism in India; Revival of Hindu devotionalism 1500–1700 Sikkhism (Guru Nanak: 1449–1538); Akbar (r. 1556–1605); Shaikh Ahmad (1564–1624); Discovery of India by Europe; Pravacana Bhasya by Vijñana Bhiksu, Tarkasa∂graha by Anambhatta 1700–1900 Colonization by Western powers; Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833), founder of Brahmo Society; Dayananda Sarasvatı (1824–83), founder of the Arya Samaj; Ramakrishna (1836–86) 1850–2000 R. Tagore (1861–1941); Gandhi (1869–1948); Aurobindo Ghose (1872–1950; Mohammad Iqbal (1877–1938); Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975); Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) Indian independence, 1947 vi 1 Introduction: Diversity, Change, and Continuity mages of India are diverse and contrasting. On the one hand, India is seen in Iterms of wise and compassionate world leaders, helping to devise the U.N. char- ter, holding Oxford appointments, winning Nobel prizes in science or literature, or directing multinational companies. The names of Nehru, Gandhi, Radhakrishnan, Tagore, Bose, and Birla come readily to mind. Others think of India in terms of yo- gins and fakirs, half-starved ascetics and naked sadhus. In medieval times the pre- vailing image was that of an exotic land of fabulous wealth. Today many people think of India as the home of one billion people crushed together in poverty.