Exploration and Evaluation of the Alternative Wildlife Management Options for the Loliondo Game Controlled Area in Tanzania: Multi-criteria Analysis Gileard Minja [B.Education (Sc), MSc] Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography, Environment and Population School of Social Sciences The University of Adelaide October 2020 Table of Contents Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... i List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... vii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................. viii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. xi Abstract ................................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Background and Problem Statement .................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Question and Objectives....................................................................................... 4 1.3 Justification for the Research ............................................................................................... 5 1.4 Research Methodology ........................................................................................................ 8 1.5 Structure of the Thesis ......................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2. History of Land-Use and Wildlife Conservation in LGCA ............................ 12 2.1 Location and Geographical Characteristics of the Study Area .......................................... 12 2.2 History of Maasai Pastoralists, Land-Use and Wildlife Conservation in Loliondo .......... 15 2.3 Land-Use Types and Systems in Loliondo ........................................................................ 20 2.4 Land-Use Change and Compatibility in Loliondo ............................................................. 23 2.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 25 Chapter 3. An Analysis of Property Rights and Land-Use Conflicts ............................... 26 3.1 Property Rights Regimes and Natural Resources .............................................................. 26 3.2 History of Land and Property Rights in Tanzania ............................................................. 29 3.3 Evolution of Property Rights to Wildlife Resources in Tanzania ...................................... 33 3.4 Property Rights to Maasai Pastoralists Rangelands ........................................................... 35 3.5 Characteristics of the Property Rights to Wildlife and Maasai Pastoral Land .................. 37 3.6 Property Rights and Natural Resource Conflicts in Loliondo ........................................... 41 3.7 Mechanism for Resolving Property Rights and Natural Resources Conflicts ................... 42 3.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 42 Chapter 4. Trophy Hunting and Wildlife Management in Protected Areas .................... 43 4.1 Introduction to Trophy Hunting Tourism and Wildlife Management ............................... 43 4.2 Trophy Hunting and Wildlife Management in Tanzania ................................................... 45 4.3 Economic Contribution of Hunting Tourism in Tanzania ................................................. 47 i 4.4 Management and Administration of Hunting in Tanzania ................................................ 48 4.5 Challenges to the Management and Administration of Hunting Tourism ......................... 49 4.5.1 Corruption and poor community involvement in hunting tourism .......................... 50 4.5.2 Over-utilization of quotas and sub-leasing of concessions ..................................... 50 4.5.3 Undefined duration of concession ownership ......................................................... 51 4.5.4 Incompetent ‘professional’ hunters ......................................................................... 52 4.5.5 Poor disbursement of revenue for wildlife management ......................................... 52 4.5.6 Illegal bush-meat trade ............................................................................................ 52 4.6 Community-Based Conservation Approach to Wildlife Management in Tanzania .......... 53 4.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 55 Chapter 5. Research Methodology ....................................................................................... 56 5.1 Introduction to MCA Methods and Techniques ................................................................ 56 5.2 Overview of the MCA Procedure ...................................................................................... 59 5.3 Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement in the MCA Process ............................................ 60 5.4 Participatory Focus Group Discussions and Stakeholder Engagement in the MCA ......... 61 5.5 The Nature of MCA Decision-Making Options and Criteria ............................................ 62 5.6 The Methods for Weighting Criteria.................................................................................. 64 5.7 Methods for Aggregating and Ranking the Options .......................................................... 66 5.7.1 The use of DEFINITE software for MCA weighting and aggregation ................... 70 5.7.2 Sensitivity analysis .................................................................................................. 70 5.8 The Need for a Community Survey to Complement MCA Results .................................. 71 5.9 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 73 Chapter 6. Systematic Review of MCA Studies in NRM ................................................... 75 6.1 Assessment Criteria of the Systematic Review and Sources of Data ................................ 75 6.2 Application of MCA for NRM .......................................................................................... 76 6.3 Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement .............................................................................. 76 6.4 Application of Deliberative MCA Approaches ................................................................. 78 6.5 The MCA Options and Criteria Developed and Applied to NRM .................................... 79 6.5.1 Application of MCA weighting and aggregation methods ...................................... 82 6.5.2 Application of MCA for NRM and property rights ................................................. 82 6.5.3 Application of GIS for MCA of tourism planning and management ...................... 85 6.5.4 Application of ecosystem services in MCA framework .......................................... 85 6.5.5 Application of a community survey in MCA .......................................................... 86 6.6 Discussion of the Strengths and Limitations of Applying MCA for NRM ....................... 87 ii 6.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 91 Chapter 7. The Process of the FGDs and the Community Survey .................................... 93 7.1 Focus Group Discussions in MCA Framework for the LGCA.......................................... 93 7.1.1 Identifying stakeholders and experts for the FGD workshops in the LGCA .......... 95 7.1.2 Defining the problem of wildlife management in the study area ............................ 98 7.1.3 Identifying options and evaluation criteria .............................................................. 99 7.1.4 The process of weighting criteria .......................................................................... 101 7.1.5 Scoring wildlife management options against criteria .......................................... 102 7.1.6 Aggregation and ranking of the options ................................................................ 103 7.1.7 Weighted summation method adopted for aggregation ......................................... 104 7.1.8 Sensitivity and deliberation of the results .............................................................. 105 7.2 The Community Survey at the LGCA ............................................................................. 105 7.2.1 Sources of data....................................................................................................... 105 7.2.2 Sampling procedures for the survey ...................................................................... 106 7.2.3 Tool for data collection.......................................................................................... 106 7.2.4 Piloting and administering a