MORTUARY VARIABILITY IN EARLY IRON AGE CRETAN BURIALS Melissa Suzanne Eaby A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Classics. Chapel Hill 2007 Approved by: Donald C. Haggis Carla M. Antonaccio Jodi Magness G. Kenneth Sams Nicola Terrenato UMI Number: 3262626 Copyright 2007 by Eaby, Melissa Suzanne All rights reserved. UMI Microform 3262626 Copyright 2007 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 © 2007 Melissa Suzanne Eaby ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT MELISSA SUZANNE EABY: Mortuary Variability in Early Iron Age Cretan Burials (Under the direction of Donald C. Haggis) The Early Iron Age (c. 1200-700 B.C.) on Crete is a period of transition, comprising the years after the final collapse of the palatial system in Late Minoan IIIB up to the development of the polis, or city-state, by or during the Archaic period. Over the course of this period, significant changes occurred in settlement patterns, settlement forms, ritual contexts, and most strikingly, in burial practices. Early Iron Age burial practices varied extensively throughout the island, not only from region to region, but also often at a single site; for example, at least 12 distinct tomb types existed on Crete during this time, and both inhumation and cremation were used, as well as single and multiple burial. As part of this study, over 1200 tombs found in the vicinity of 122 modern villages or towns have been catalogued. An examination of the burial methods, architecture, assemblages, dates, and spatial contexts of these tombs and cemeteries provides significant new evidence regarding the extent of cultural diversity present on the island during this period. The funerary evidence clearly indicates that Crete was characterized by extensive regionalism during the Early Iron Age; seven distinct mortuary regions, as well as four transitional or ‘border’ zones, are identified from the funerary material. In addition, a regional examination of the burial practices provides new evidence regarding the changes in political organization and social structure which occurred on the island over the course of the period. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research for this project was funded by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (International Center Pre-doctoral Travel Grant, Off-Campus Dissertation Fellowship), Fulbright Graduate Student Award, and the Archaeological Institute of America (Olivia James Traveling Fellowship), and it was carried out primarily at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens and the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete. Many people have helped me to complete the dissertation. I would like to thank Geraldine Gesell, Leslie Day, Krzysztof Nowicki, Maria Liston, Metaxia Tsipopoulou, Eleni Nodarou, Ioannis Papadatos, and Thomas Brogan for taking the time to answer my questions and talking with me about their material. Donald Haggis and Margaret Mook have been especially supportive and encouraging over the years, offering much needed advice, as well as permission to use the Azoria tomb material. Thanks to Carla Antonaccio, Jodi Magness, Kenneth Sams, and Nicola Terrenato for reading the dissertation. Yuki Furuya is responsible for most of the maps and was invaluable in fixing certain computer ‘issues.’ I would also like to thank the staff of the INSTAP center, especially Eleanor, Doug, Kathy, Etienne, and Michel, as well as friends Gloria Park Hunt and Sheri Pak, for their moral support, and my family for always being there, supporting me no matter what I do, and for putting up with all my crazy traveling. Finally, this work is dedicated to Vangelis Phiorakis who not only provided the inspiration for the topic but also allowed me to drag him all over the island in search of old tombs. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................ix ABBREVIATIONS .........................................................................................................xviii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1 II. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .............................................................5 Location ........................................................................................................5 Chronology ...................................................................................................7 Brief history of the Early Iron Age on Crete ..............................................10 Brief history of research on EIA Cretan burials .........................................12 Nature of the evidence ................................................................................13 History of scholarship for mortuary studies in general ...............................15 Methodology ...............................................................................................19 III. CATALOGUE OF SITES ..........................................................................23 Lasithi Nomos .............................................................................................23 Herakleion Nomos ......................................................................................95 Rethymnon Nomos ...................................................................................173 Chania Nomos ...........................................................................................187 IV. ANALYSIS BY TOMB TYPE .................................................................197 v Tholos tombs .............................................................................................197 Natural caves, rock shelters, and rock hollows .........................................264 Chamber tombs .........................................................................................273 Pits, shaft graves, and pit caves ................................................................305 Pithos burials, pseudotholoi, and intramural burials .................................318 Cist graves and burial enclosures ..............................................................324 Tombs of other types ................................................................................332 Tombs of unknown type and possible burials ...........................................333 V. SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION ...........................................................337 Lasithi .......................................................................................................338 Far Eastern ................................................................................................340 West Siteia Mountains ..............................................................................345 Mirabello and Ierapetra Isthmus ...............................................................349 Conclusion for East Crete .........................................................................353 Central ......................................................................................................355 Far Western ...............................................................................................364 West-Central .............................................................................................367 Overall conclusion ....................................................................................369 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................372 FIGURES ..............................................................................................................412 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Tholoi – chamber shape, size, height ............................................................206 2. Tholoi – stomion, dromos, construction .......................................................213 3. Tholoi – enclosure, roofing, floor, above/below ground ..............................221 4. Tholoi – burial information ...........................................................................226 5. Tholoi – date, orientation, location relative to settlement ............................236 6. Possible EIA tholos tombs ............................................................................239 7. Pre-EIA tholoi with possible EIA burials .....................................................240 8. Offerings, funerary ritual, etc. associated with EIA tholoi ...........................242 9. BA tholoi with possible EIA cult activity......................................................243 10. Grave goods from tholos tombs ....................................................................253 11. Cave burials – tomb information ..................................................................265 12. Grave goods from cave burials .....................................................................268 13. Rock shelters – tomb information .................................................................269 14. Grave goods from rock shelters ....................................................................270