Railroading Black Families: African American Men, Family, and Labor in Post-Emancipation Georgia by CaVar Reid A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (American Culture) in The University of Michigan 2016 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Stephen Berrey, Chair Assistant Professor Brandi S. Hughes Professor Martha S. Jones Professor Regina Morantz- Sanchez Professor Alford A. Young Jr. Daniel prayed and said, Blessed be the name of God for ever and ever: for wisdom and might are His: And He changeth the times and the seasons: He removeth kings, and setteth up kings: He giveth wisdom unto the wise, and knowledge to them that know understanding: He revealeth the deep and secret things: He knoweth what is in the darkness, and the light dwelleth with Him. I thank thee, and praise thee, O thou God of my fathers, who hast given me wisdom and might, and hast made known unto me now what we desired of thee: for thou hast now made known unto us the king's matter. Daniel 2: 20-23 © CaVar Reid 2016 ii Dedication This work is dedicated to the memory of Sister Veronica Mullings, one of my favorite teammates and ministry partners. She was a tall, statuesque, singer/teacher/preacher, with broad shoulders, a bright smile and a big voice. She had a baker’s touch, stood with perfect posture, and spoke with almost flawless diction. Sis. Mullings was one of the finest Christians I’ve ever known. iii Acknowledgements I am so grateful that the Lord has given me the grace to complete this project. He gave me peace, joy, and creative ideas when all I had was anxiety, vague dissertation thoughts, and a blank, untitled word document. Along this journey, He sent people to challenge me, nurture me, and advocate for me. He blessed me with fine mentors, helpful colleagues, a host of workout partners, and a supportive church family. God is so good to me. My parents, Courton and Claudette Reid, were my loudest cheerleaders and my most constant encouragers throughout this process. They made sure our family home was a place I could study, cry, pray, and laugh. They made sure I never felt alone and helped to bear my burdens. I am so grateful for them. I cannot say enough about my brothers either. Over the past five years, Caryl and Caraun have graduated, started careers, scored touchdowns, and received promotions and accolades, yet they haven’t forgotten me. They’ve selflessly given me their time, food, clothes, words of advice, and many jokes. Mommy always says that our family is a team; I certainly couldn’t have made it without my team. I have a number of wonderful faculty members to thank as well. Dr. Alford Young Jr. is my mentor, but calling him a mentor does not even begin to describe the scope of the role he has played in my life. He’s been an ally, a role model, confidant, employer, teacher, and a sounding board. Daddy always tells me, “Great people need to know how to walk with kings but not lose the common touch.” To me, Dr. Young embodies this standard. I pattern so much of my mentoring approach after his example. I am proud to be his mentee. I met Dr. Claire Potter nine years ago when I was a freshman at Wesleyan University. What started as a university assigned faculty-student connection has blossomed into a decade long mentorship. She was the first faculty member to ever tell me I was smart. That was huge for me, a black kid from the Bronx attending a predominantly white institution. She took the time to help me develop my research and writing iv skills. She encouraged me to apply to graduate school. And, when my dissertation was in shambles and my career vision was muddy, she offered timely advice and a listening ear. She has been critical to my success. When folks ask how I finished the Ph.D. in five years, I often tell them it’s because Prof. Stephen Berry and I are the perfect dissertation chair-graduate student pairing. We’re both punctual, professional, and personable. I liked working with firm deadlines and he was good at holding me accountable to them. Our meetings were always productive; He always came with timely, critical, and well thought out feedback. And, at the end of this process, when I just wanted to get the dissertation done, he pushed me to make sure it was well done. I really mean it when I say, he is the best kept secret in the American Culture Department. I am grateful for Prof. Gina Morantz- Sanchez, my intellectual godmother. She trained to me think critically about masculinity, manhood, gender, and class. She’s also the toughest teacher and editor I’ve ever worked with. I am a better thinker and reader because of our time together. I am also thankful for Prof. Martha Jones and Prof. Brandi Hughes who were vital members of committee. Anyone who attended my dissertation defense knows just how brilliant these women are and how they demand excellence from their students. Outside of the classroom, a host of family members and friends came alongside me and help me run this race. Thank you to my Auntie Adlin who made all my Michigan residences look like something out of HGTV. We Palmers certainly know style! She also housed, chauffeured, and fed me while I was conducting research in Georgia. Auntie Jennifer and Bro. Lee also welcomed me into their home while I mined the archives in D.C. and Maryland. Thank you for helping me combine research and pleasure! I would have burned out if you all weren’t willing to take me bowling, golfing, and fishing. I needed that. I received immense support from my Wesleyan University sisters. They’ve believed in me ever since I had the thought of going to graduate school. Sisters, all our “Colored Conferences,” long conversations at Usdan, and Facebook posts about Switched at Birth and have resulted in something wonderful! Let me specially mention my sisters Carolyn Sinclair McCalla and Angela Dixon. Thanks for being true friends. You are the best. My Mom’s grandmother used to say, “If you have more friends than you can count on one hand, you have too many.” She’d definitely say I have too many. I’ve made quite a few meaningful relationships while in Michigan that I’d like to honor. During my first year of graduate school, I happened upon an elite group of athletes who meet three days a week to play basketball at the North Campus Gym. Over the years, many of these men have become like family to me— like cool, adopted uncles. v I am grateful for the environment they cultivated in which I could hear and make jokes, burn calories, and get my mind off my academic pressures. Antonio “Abuelo” McCormack Ramirez, Kyera Singleton, Tamarie Macon, Elder Austin McCoy, and Lloyd Danny Barba are my closest graduate student friends. When I needed to vent, go to Buffalo Wild Wings, get out of town, figure out how to format the dissertation, or craft a cover letter, these were my people! My relationship with each of them goes beyond academia and I am thankful for their presence in my life. Pastor Eddie Marcum and the brethren from the River of Life Assembly of God in Belleville, Michigan received me into their church community. There, I wasn’t a visiting graduate student; They embraced me as a brother who wanted to serve the Lord, serve the church, and serve people. At times, my scholarship seemed like the most important thing in the world. The church helped keep me spiritually grounded and eternally minded. I’d like to specially mention a few of my friends and co-laborers in the ministry: The Marcum Families and the Hall Family. I was a stranger and you welcomed me. Thank you. Lastly, I want to honor the members and friends of my home church, the City of Faith Church of God in Bronx, New York. Ever since I was a child, the saints here have been speaking greatness and possibility into my life. By faith, they called those things that were not as though they were. All along this tedious journey, they interceded for me and believed with me. I am grateful for the church. This is dissertation will forever stand as a testimony that we Holiness Pentecostal folks aren’t just very saved; we’re very smart too. We can spend long hours at the altar and at the library. We can victory over our flesh and over our textbooks. Thank you for every prayer, sincere word of encouragement, and every “God Bless You.” Though our vision tarried it has come to pass. vi Table of Contents Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Black Fathers, Families, and White Labor Interests from Slavery to Southern Reconstruction ............................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 2: “He was Master Now”: Work-Family Dynamics in Black Sharecropping Households ................................................................................................................................. 73 Chapter 3: Bond, Free, and Temporary: Georgia’s Black Railroad Laborers, 1850-1914 .......... 119 Chapter 4: Derailing White Manhood: Georgia’s Black Locomotive Firemen, 1880-1914 ....... 150 Chapter 5: Hammer in the Hand, Home on the Heart: Negotiating Relational and Work Identity in Black Railroad Work Songs ........................................................................... 204 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 239 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 245 1 Introduction Workin’ on de railroad, fifty cents a day. De boss at de comp’ny sto sign all I makes Away. Mammy po’ly write, “Please sen’ money, Son.” But I ain’t got no ready made money! But I ain’t go no ready made money, my God Damn black soul I can’t send her none Not long after Civil War hostilities came to an end General Clinton B.