Survey of sodium and calcium hypochlorite Part of the LOUS review Environmental project No. 1720, 2015 Title: Author: Survey of sodium and calcium hypochlorite Carlos Escudero-Oñate Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) Published by: The Danish Environmental Protection Agency Strandgade 29 DK-1401 Copenhagen K Denmark www.mst.dk Year: ISBN no. 2015 978-87-93352-33-9 Disclaimer: When the occasion arises, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency will publish reports and papers concerning research and development projects within the environmental sector, financed by study grants provided by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. It should be noted that such publications do not necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. However, publication does indicate that, in the opinion of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, the content represents an important contribution to the debate surrounding Danish environmental policy. May be quoted provided the source is acknowledged. 2 Survey of sodium and calcium hypochlorite Contents Preface ...................................................................................................................... 5 Conclusion and Summary .......................................................................................... 7 Sammenfatning og konklusion ................................................................................. 11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 11 1. Introduction to sodium and calcium hypochlorite ............................................ 15 1.1 Definition of the substances ................................................................................................. 15 1.2 Physical and chemical properties ......................................................................................... 15 1.3 Characteristics and reactivity of the hypochlorite anion..................................................... 17 1.4 Function of the substances for the main application areas ................................................. 19 2. Regulatory framework...................................................................................... 21 2.1 Existing regulation ................................................................................................................ 21 2.2 Biocide regulation ................................................................................................................ 24 2.3 Classification and labelling .................................................................................................. 26 2.3.1 Harmonised classification in the EU .................................................................... 26 2.4 REACH ................................................................................................................................. 27 2.5 International agreements .................................................................................................... 27 2.6 Eco-labels ............................................................................................................................. 29 2.7 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................... 30 3. Manufacture and uses ...................................................................................... 31 3.1 Manufacturing ...................................................................................................................... 31 3.1.1 Manufacturing processes ....................................................................................... 31 3.1.2 Manufacturing sites ............................................................................................... 31 3.1.3 Manufacturing and consumption volumes .......................................................... 32 3.2 Import and export ................................................................................................................ 35 3.2.1 Import and export in Denmark ............................................................................ 35 3.2.2 Import and export in the EU ................................................................................ 38 3.3 Use ........................................................................................................................................ 40 3.3.1 Registered uses by ECHA ..................................................................................... 40 3.3.2 Registered use in Denmark................................................................................... 40 3.4 Historical trends in use ......................................................................................................... 41 3.5 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................... 48 4. Waste management .......................................................................................... 50 4.1 Waste from manufacture and use of sodium and calcium hypochlorite ........................... 50 4.2 Waste products from the use in mixtures ........................................................................... 50 4.3 Release of sodium and calcium hypochlorite from waste disposal.................................... 50 4.4 Summary and conclusions .................................................................................................... 51 5. Environmental effects and exposure ................................................................. 52 5.1 Environmental hazard ......................................................................................................... 52 5.1.1 Classification ......................................................................................................... 52 5.1.2 Toxicity in the aquatic environment .................................................................... 52 5.1.3 Toxicity in the terrestrial environment ................................................................ 56 5.2 Environmental fate and behaviour ...................................................................................... 57 Survey of sodium and calcium hypochlorite 3 5.2.1 Photodegradation ................................................................................................... 57 5.2.2 Water stability ........................................................................................................ 57 5.2.3 PBT and vPvB assessment ..................................................................................... 57 5.2.4 Treatability in wastewater treatment plants ........................................................ 58 5.3 Environmental exposure and impact .................................................................................. 58 5.3.1 Sources of release .................................................................................................. 58 5.3.2 Monitoring data .................................................................................................... 62 5.4 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................... 62 6. Human health effects ....................................................................................... 63 6.1 Human health hazard .......................................................................................................... 63 6.1.1 Hazards assessment .............................................................................................. 63 6.2 Human exposure .................................................................................................................. 70 6.2.1 Direct exposure ..................................................................................................... 70 6.2.2 Occupational exposure.......................................................................................... 76 6.3 Bio-monitoring data ............................................................................................................ 78 6.4 Exposure to chlorinated organic by-products .................................................................... 78 6.5 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................... 82 7. Information on alternatives .............................................................................. 84 7.1 Water disinfection ................................................................................................................ 84 7.1.1 Ozone ..................................................................................................................... 85 7.1.2 Ultraviolet radiation.............................................................................................. 85 7.1.3 Use of monochloramine ........................................................................................ 86 7.1.4 Chlorine dioxide .................................................................................................... 86 7.1.5 Hydrogen peroxide and peroxone ........................................................................ 87 7.1.6 Chloroisocianuric acid salts .................................................................................. 87 7.1.7 By-products derived from the use of disinfectants .............................................. 88 7.2 Cleaning and disinfection