BORN SHE IS THE DIVINE CHRIST CHILD: FEMALE FIGURATIONS OF CHRIST IN BLACK ATLANTIC LITERATURE, THEATRE, AND CINEMA _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _____________________________________________________ by AURELIA MOUZET Dr. Mary Jo Muratore, Dissertation Supervisor Dr. Mamadou Badiane, Dissertation Co-Supervisor July 2017 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled BORN SHE IS THE DIVINE CHRIST CHILD: FEMALE FIGURATIONS OF CHRIST IN BLACK ATLANTIC LITERATURE, THEATRE, AND CINEMA presented by Aurélia Mouzet, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor Mamadou Badiane Professor Christopher Okonkwo Professor Mary Jo Muratore Professor Valerie Kaussen ………………………….To my mother, my grandmother and my grandfather, you have been and for ever will be my pillars and my inspiration, may God bless your souls. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deep gratitude goes to Professor Muratore, who expertly guided my work and who provided me with invaluable insight and shared the excitement of five years of discovery. Her passion for teaching set a high standard for anyone involved in education, and our collaboration made me grow as a scholar as well as a teacher. Her outstanding professionalism and deep generosity helped make this dissertation, my research and my time at the University of Missouri both humanly and intellectually fulfilling. I also would like to thank Professor Mamadou Badiane, who challenged me and who provided me with wise comments which set the highest standard for my work as a researcher. His earnestness and his scholar inquisitiveness helped make this dissertation, my research and my work as a scholar challenging and intellectually stimulating. I also would like to thank Professor Christopher Okonkwo, who provided me with invaluable insight in regard to both African and African American Studies. His early insight launched the greater part of this dissertation. His knowledge and the level of mastery he demonstrated and generously shared with me made this dissertation, my research and my work as a scholar intellectually stimulating. I also would like to thank Professor Valerie Kaussen who provided me with invaluable comments that contributed to strengthen both my dissertation and my perception of scholarly work. My appreciation also extends to the faculty members of the Romance Languages. Annice Wetzel’s and Professor Flore Zephir’s mentoring and encouragement have been especially valuable. iii Above ground, I am indebted to my mother whose extraordinary strength and courage in the face of adversity gave me the strength to achieve my goals in spite of difficulty. I am also indebted to Annice and John Wetzel, whose genuine kindness helped make my work, my time, and our life at the University of Missouri thoroughly enjoyable. And finally, I acknowledge my children, Kayshan and Ayiana, who patiently waited for countless hours, always believed in me, and without whom I would have never found the courage to return to college. iv Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. vi INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 I. THE BLACK WORLD AND THE BIBLE ......................................................................... 16 I.1 The Bible, Christianity and Christian Missions in the Black Atlantic ........................... 16 I.1.a The Birth of Christianity, and Missionary Activities in Subsaharan Africa ............ 16 I.1.b The Caribbean .......................................................................................................... 31 I.1.c The U.S. ................................................................................................................... 38 I.2 Overview: Jesus in the Black Atlantic ............................................................................ 44 I.2.a Jesus Christ, Africa, and African Christology ......................................................... 45 I.2.b Christology in the Caribbean ................................................................................... 52 I.2.c Black Theology, the U.S., and the Image of Christ ................................................. 60 II. WOMEN AND RELIGION(S) IN THE BLACK ATLANTIC .......................................... 69 II.1 Black Women and Folk Religion(s) in the Black Atlantic ............................................ 71 II.1.a Women’s roles in ATRs ......................................................................................... 71 II.1.b Women of African Descent and Religion in the Caribbean ................................... 81 II.1.c Black Women and Religion in the US .................................................................... 96 II.2 Womanist Discourse, Creolized Christianity and Female Leadership in the Black Atlantic ............................................................................................................................... 105 II.2.a Women and Christology in Africa ........................................................................ 112 II.2.b Women, Christinity and Christology in the Caribbean ........................................ 122 II.2.c African American Women, Womanist Discourse and Christology in the US ...... 128 III. FEMININE FIGURATIONS OF THE CHRIST IN THE BLACK ATLANTIC ........... 138 III.1 Myth-Criticism: Hypotextuality of the Christ’s Narrative Interrogated .................... 138 III.1.A Jesus Christ in the Biblical Narrative ................................................................ 138 III.1.b Claire as a Figuration of Christ in Amour by Marie Vieux-Chauvet .................. 142 III.1.c Télumée as a Figuration of Christ in Pluie et Vent sur Télumée Miracle by Simone Schwarz-Bart.................................................................................................................. 151 III.1.d Consolata as a Figuration of Christ in Paradise by Toni Morrison .................... 154 III.2 Aesthetic Figurations of Christ in Black Atlantic Fiction .......................................... 158 III.2.a Amour: A Case Study .......................................................................................... 158 III.2.b Pluie et vent : A Case Study................................................................................ 163 III.2.c Paradise : A Case Study ..................................................................................... 171 III.3 Biblical Intertext and Politics in Black Atlantic Fiction ............................................ 179 v III.3.a Amour: Claire an Anti(Messianic)-Hero ............................................................. 180 III.3.b Pluie et vent: Women, Healing, Community and Empowerment ....................... 186 III.3.c Paradise: Rewriting Foundation Narratives........................................................ 191 III.4 Religion(s) and Beyond: Christ as a Metaphor for the Complexity of Contemporary Black Feminine Identities .................................................................................................. 197 III.4.a Amour : The Haitian Feminine Ethos in Question .............................................. 198 III.4.b Pluie et vent : A Redemption of the Guadeloupean Peasant Woman ................. 204 III.4.c Paradise : For a Revision of Christianity ............................................................ 209 IV. FEMINIST FIGURATIONS OF CHRIST IN BLACK ATLANTIC VISUAL ARTS: SEMBÈNE OUSMANE’S LA NOIRE DE… AND KWAHULÉ’S BINTOU ...................... 215 IV.1 Myth-Criticism .......................................................................................................... 215 IV.1.a Diouana as a Figuration of Christ in La Noire de... by Sembène Ousmane ....... 215 IV.1.b Bintou as a Figuration of Christ in Bintou by Koffi Kwahulé ............................ 222 IV.2 Aesthetic Figurations of Christ in Black Atlantic Visual Arts .................................. 230 IV.2.a La Noire de: An Aesthetic Analysis ................................................................... 230 IV.2.b Bintou: An Aesthetic Analysis ............................................................................ 239 IV.3 The Political Dimension of Black Atlantic Visual Arts............................................ 246 IV.3.a La Noire de and its socio-political dimensions ................................................... 246 IV.3.b Bintou and Socio-Political reality ....................................................................... 251 IV.4 Religion(s) and Beyond: Christ as a Metaphor for the Complexity of Contemporary Black Feminine Identities .................................................................................................. 257 IV.4.a La Noire de: A Case Study ................................................................................. 257 IV.4.b Bintou: A Revised Revelation............................................................................