University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. The Emergence and Development of Digital Film-Making in Iran Alireza Razazifar Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Media Design and Technology Faculty of Engineering and Informatics University of Bradford 2015 Abstract Alireza Razazifar The Emergence and Development of Digital Film-Making in Iran Keywords: Cinema, Digital, Reality, Special Effects, Iran, Kiarostami, Panahi, Ghobadi, Representation, Neo-realism. Iranian digital film-making, which has emerged and developed since 2000 in the Iranian cinematic context, mainly follows a trend based on the nature of new media. However, this trend is subject to fluctuation because of specific aspects of Iranian cinema. In addition, due to the realistic cinematic culture of Iran and the presence of Iranian neorealism film-makers, we face the emergence of a new kind of film-making which has certain international effects in world cinema. These film-makers have found a new method to approach reality and represent it in their films. On the other hand, this new cinematic reality contains more elements from a representation of reality than the analogue one, due to the power of digital cameras and technology. In this research, firstly I investigate the emergence of digital film-making in Iran, which may be unique to some extent compared to other parts of world cinema, and I show the gradual development of this phenomenon up to 2013. This investigation will reveal which parts of Iranian cinema have undergone the most changes. In the next steps, I focus on Iranian neorealism (Iranian art house cinema) and also on Iranian big-budget films. In the former, I focus on changes in the ‘representation of reality’, which I argue is the main characteristic of this mode, and in the latter I show the newly established relationship between governmental desire and the new digital special effects. Thus, I believe I will cover most of the changes that have been occurring in Iranian cinema due to the digitalisation process. i Acknowledgment My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors Dr Mark Goodall and Mr. David Robison for their support and academic guidance during my study in Bradford University. I would like to thank Dr Ben Roberts and Dr Nacim Pak Shiraz for their useful advice on my thesis. I would also like to record my appreciation for the academic guidance and help provided to me by Professor Hamid Naficy during revision of the first draft of my thesis. ii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... iii Table of Figures ............................................................................................................................ vii Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 Subject of the Research ............................................................................................................ 4 Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 6 Outline of the PhD Thesis ......................................................................................................... 6 Pertinence of the Subject.......................................................................................................... 8 Aims and Objectives .................................................................................................................. 9 Contribution to Knowledge ....................................................................................................... 9 Theory and Methodology ....................................................................................................... 11 Iranian Digital Film-Making as an empirical study .................................................................. 19 Outcomes of the Research ...................................................................................................... 22 Chapter 1: Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 23 New Iranian Cinema and Iranian Neorealism ......................................................................... 24 The Special Case of Kiarostami and Iranian Digital Cinema .................................................... 31 Poetical Approach to Abbas Kiarostami’s Digital Films .......................................................... 34 Political Approaches to Iranian Digital Cinema ....................................................................... 39 Issues of Women and Gender in Iranian Digital Cinema ........................................................ 42 Theories and Discussions on the Digital Works of Kiarostami ................................................ 43 Recent Relevant Theoretical Discussions in Digital Cinema ................................................... 54 Chapter 2: History of Digital Cinema in Iran ............................................................................... 58 Prologue .................................................................................................................................. 59 First Steps in Technology ........................................................................................................ 59 Masters and Pioneers ............................................................................................................. 66 Editors and Digital Cinema ...................................................................................................... 77 iii Sound and Digital Cinema ....................................................................................................... 81 Cinematography ...................................................................................................................... 84 Visual Effects Supervisors ....................................................................................................... 91 Short Films and the New Generation...................................................................................... 92 Documentary Film-making ...................................................................................................... 94 Studios and Equipment ......................................................................................................... 100 Directing in Iranian Digital Cinema ....................................................................................... 103 Digital Distribution ................................................................................................................ 113 The Black Market .................................................................................................................. 114 Digital Exhibition ................................................................................................................... 116 Chapter 3: Representations of Reality in Iranian Digital Cinema.............................................. 121 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 122 Subject ............................................................................................................................... 129 Script ................................................................................................................................. 130 Location ............................................................................................................................. 132 Camera (movement and angle) ........................................................................................ 133 Lighting ............................................................................................................................. 134 Acting ................................................................................................................................ 135 Directing ............................................................................................................................ 137 Reduction of directorial role: A Comparison between Taste of Cherry and Ten .................. 139 Subject ............................................................................................................................... 139 Script ................................................................................................................................. 140 Location ............................................................................................................................. 145 Acting ................................................................................................................................ 146 Lighting ............................................................................................................................