City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 6-2017 The Art of Cognition: British Empiricism and Victorian Aesthetics Rachel Kravetz The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/2145 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] THE ART OF COGNITION: BRITISH EMPRICISM AND VICTORIAN AESTHETICS by RACHEL KRAVETZ A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in English in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2017 © 2017 RACHEL KRAVETZ All Rights Reserved ii The Art of Cognition: British Empiricism and Victorian Aesthetics by Rachel Kravetz This manuscript has been read and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in English in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date Tanya Agathocleous Chair of Examining Committee Date Mario DiGangi Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Nancy Yousef Anne Humpherys Gerhard Joseph THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT The Art of Cognition: British Empiricism and Victorian Aesthetics by Rachel Kravetz Advisor: Tanya Agathocleous The British are credited—or charged—with establishing empiricism, the view that all knowledge is embedded in sense experience. My project argues for and describes an undercurrent of idealism within British empiricism: the writers of my study investigated modes of thinking that transform sensory experience. To see their idealism at work, it is necessary to look closely at how they conceived of ideas in the mind as pictures. Given that the term “picture” was used to refer to both inner ideas and actual paintings, it is not surprising (though rarely noticed) that when empiricists wanted to consider how the mind shapes ideas, they turned to the history of painting. Painting theory has long manifested a sharp tension between the ambition to reproduce observation and the drive to transform what the eye sees. For this reason, it has been a congenial medium for thinkers unwilling to give up the authority of sense experience but unsatisfied with its yields. I set nineteenth-century texts against foundational Enlightenment works to show how that later age worked within and against the tradition known as British empiricism. My argument centers on British figures who were compelled to revise the empiricism they inherited from the eighteenth century. Constrained as they were within their empirical moment, they found empiricism too rigid to accommodate their own modes of thought, the cultural products they encountered, and future imaginaries. I examine how a range of authors iv imported artistic concepts and images into theories of mind in texts of various genres: the philosophy of John Locke and the Earl of Shaftesbury, the art criticism of John Ruskin, the fiction of George Eliot and Thomas Hardy, and the anthropological scholarship of J.G. Frazer. They represent a spectrum of views about the relationship between empiricism and idealism, and degrees of skepticism about the relative explanatory power of either. Poised at an intersection of literary studies, intellectual history, and the history of art, this project turns on two pictorial paradigms: the ideal landscape and the grotesque figure. Framing my accounts of Victorian idealism are two skeptical accounts of the mind, by Locke and Frazer. Their texts fret over the mind’s ability to imperil knowledge by producing grotesque—unnatural, fantastic—images derived from data of the external world. Idealistic accounts of the mind by Ruskin and Eliot theorize its ability to form scenic views superior to any offered to sight. Works by Hardy and Frazer elegize the disappearance of such scenes, marking the disintegration of the project of an empiricist idealism at the end of the nineteenth century. This project is at base a defense of the humanities. To read philosophies of mind through the lens of aesthetics is to better understand how major British writers invested in ideas, and how they confronted the problem of knowledge and its limits. v Acknowledgments I have found scholarship to be a very collaborative process, and it is a pleasure to give credit to the people who have helped me. Tanya Agathocleous guided this project to its completion, always with incisive intelligence and great good sense. I have greatly appreciated, first, her readiness to take over the supervision of my dissertation and, above all, her truly essential help in framing the whole and each part. Our interactions are always energizing and thought-provoking. Any remaining rickety points in my dissertation reflect my own weaknesses. Many thanks to Gerhard Joseph for supervising this project for several years, always in a calm, wry, and prompt manner. Anne Humpherys has consistently provided sound advice on both decorum and writing. She is an invaluable reader and has been a steady, grounding presence throughout my years in graduate school. I am very grateful to Nancy Yousef, who suggested the possibility of a project beginning in empiricist philosophy and ending in Victorian aesthetics. I am extremely indebted to Helena Rosenblatt, who encouraged me to continue in the field of the history of ideas years ago. She read chapter 1 countless times, with boundless generosity, and is responsible for the coherence it has. Thanks to Patricia Likos Ricci, who was always ready to contribute knowledge on art historical matters, and who made important suggestions for chapter 3. I also wish to thank Felicia Bonaparte for the best possible introduction to Victorian literature. I’m grateful to the friends who have been so important and impressive: Shonna Carter, my oldest friend; Priya Chandrasekaran, an insightful and benevolent presence for nine years; Elizabeth Michel, an elegant thinker with a card for every occasion; Keridiana Chez, a frighteningly quick mind and pen; Raina Lipsitz and Anne Blackfield, especially for their humor; Joe Wessely; Jason Eberspeaker, perceptive in every scenario; Hephsie Loeb; Bernadette vi Ludwig; Ileana Selejan; Amanda Kirkpatrick; Rose Sneyd; Liz Cabot; Cambria Matlow; Claire Weingarten; Diana Hamilton; and others. Thanks to my parents, Katharine and Eric Kravetz, for their support and help; my aunt, Frances Kunreuther, and her partner, Ann Holder, who have been supportive during ups and downs and provided a home for six months (thanks also to Helen Kim); my wonderful brother, Daniel Kravetz, my kind and collected sister-in-law, Madhavi Kasinadhuni, and my beloved baby nephew, Ravi; Emily Kunreuther; Dorothy Kravetz; Radha Kasinadhuni; Elizabeth Kunreuther; William Halpern; Paula Halpern; and Nick Halpern, who read a draft of chapter 1 and several overviews. I also wish to thank the 2014-15 cohort of the Committee for Interdisciplinary Science Studies at the Graduate Center, who read chapters 1 and 2 (and listened to the earliest version of chapter 4), and its director, Jesse Prinz. Finally, I wish to thank Dr. Marco Pappagallo and Dr. Pedram Hamrah. It is not an exaggeration to say that they made it possible for me to complete this project. vii Table of Contents Part I: Idea and Image in British Philosophy and Literature Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Locke’s Centaur: Aesthetics in Philosophies of Mind 19 Chapter 2 John Ruskin’s Ideal Landscape 55 Chapter 3 The Radiant Tableaus of Daniel Deronda 79 Part II: The Breakdown of Ideals in Late Victorian Prose Chapter 4 The Collapse of Framework in The Woodlanders 106 Chapter 5 The Golden Bough: The Grotesque Against the Picturesque 133 Conclusion Forms of Improvement: Optimism and Idealism 164 viii Figures Figure 1. Antonio Tempesta, The Battle of the Lapithae and the Centaurs, 17th century Figure 2. The Green Closet at Ham House, Richmond-upon-Thames, 1637-9 Figure 3. Casa Vasari, 1548 Figure 4. Paolo de’ Matteis, The Choice of Hercules, 1712 Figure 5. Joseph Mallord William Turner, Procris and Cephalus (Liber Studiorum), 1812 Figure 6. Thomas Gainsborough, A Lady as “Diana”, Walking in A Landscape, 18th century Figure 7. Claude Lorrain, Pastoral Landscape with the Ponte Molle, 17th century Figure 8. Joseph Mallord William Turner, Bridge in the Middle Distance, 1808 Figure 9. Albrecht Dürer, Painter's Manual (1525) Figure 10. Thomas Hardy, Church of St Juliot, Cornwall, in its present state Figure 11. Joseph Mallord William Turner, The Golden Bough, 1834 Figure 12. Frontispiece, The Golden Bough Figure 13. Claude Lorrain, Pastoral Landscape, 1644 Figure 14. Gaspard Dughet, The Falls of Tivoli, 1661 Figure 15. Claude Lorrain, Landscape with an Imaginary View of Tivoli (1642) ix Introduction Images in Philosophies of Mind The paintings that appear in Victorian writing—as the subjects of criticism or in allusive passages of description—easily lead out in the material world of Victorian life, where so much scholarly energy has been spent. This world can to the twenty-first-century reader seem laden with objects awaiting analysis. In a field strongly influenced by the orientation and methods of cultural studies, Victorianists have treated the artworks in Victorian literature as portals into the Victorian art world. This dissertation has a different response to why these artworks feature in literature, finding in them a path not outward into the social world but inward, into the mind. The mind’s ability to derive knowledge from sense experience was strongly in question during my period of focus, when the mind becomes the locus of both anxiety and hope. My dissertation proposes that each impulse finds expression through artistic paradigms, reapplied to the mind. While the history of ideas is inseparable from cultural history, this project is affiliated primarily with the former. Central to my project is an understanding of how Victorians inherit and transmute questions about image and knowledge raised in British Enlightenment philosophy.