International Environmental Law Principles: A New Solution for the Space Debris Problem? by Shaul Gordon A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF LAWS (LL.M) Institute of Air and Space Law McGill University Montréal, Québec April 2021 © Shaul Gordon, 2021 i Acknowledgements I am very grateful for the opportunity to pursue my LL.M studies at McGill University. It would not have been possible without the support from many people and institutions. To my faculty advisor, Professor Andrea Bjorklund: thank you so much for all your help. Thank you for taking the time to review and comment on my drafts, and for all your recommendations and advice. I also give special thanks to all the Professors with whom I have had the privilege to work with – Professor Ram Jakhu, Professor Brian Havel, Professor Paul Fitzgerald, Professor Benoit Girardin, and Professor Frédéric Mégret. A big thank you to my entire fencing family for supporting my studies while I qualified for the Tokyo 2021 Olympic Games. Thank you to my coach Jean-Marie Banos, and teammates Farès Arfa, Marc Gélinas, and Joseph Polossifakis. To my entire family and Yana: thank you for your patience, love, and support. ii Abstract Satellites orbiting the Earth form the exoskeleton of the world’s critical infrastructure: global communications, air transport, maritime trade, financial services and weather monitoring all depend on an expansive network of satellites in space. There are however inherent consequences to human activities in outer space. The most critical challenge to the safety, security, and sustainability of outer space is the threat posed by space debris to the spacecraft of all nations. The emerging commercialization, democratization and militarization of space has led to the growth of space debris, heavily concentrated in the orbits where human activities take place. In light of this challenge, this thesis analyzes international space law treaties and soft-law instruments with a view to determine their relevance and effectiveness in addressing the space debris dilemma. It recommends that legal principles from a different legal framework – international environmental law – be applied in outer space to impose stronger obligations on spacefaring countries, and lead to a more successful and equitable strategy to preserve the outer space environment. In practical terms, the precautionary principle, the no-harm rule, and the common but differentiated responsibilities principle should lead to: (1) greater compliance with space debris mitigation measures to stabilize the debris population; (2) improved space situational awareness programs with more detailed and accurate data-sharing between States; and (3) continued research, investment, and the eventual implementation of space debris removal mechanisms. iii Résumé Les satellites en orbite autour de la Terre forment l’exosquelette de l’infrastructure mondiale : les communications globales, le transport aérien, le commerce maritime, et les services financiers et météorologiques dépendent tous d’un vaste réseau de satellites dans l’espace. Néanmoins, les activités humaines dans l’espace entraînent des conséquences inhérentes. Le défi le plus critique pour la sûreté, la sécurité et la durabilité de l’espace est la menace que représentent les débris spatiaux pour les satellites de toutes les nations. La commercialisation, la démocratisation et la militarisation de l'espace ont entraîné une croissance dans la quantité de débris, qui est fortement concentrée dans les orbites où se déroulent les activités humaines. En face de ce défi, cette thèse analyse les traités internationaux du droit spatial et d’autres instruments internationaux en vue de déterminer leur pertinence et leur efficacité pour résoudre le dilemme des débris spatiaux. Cette thèse recommande que des principes juridiques issus d'un cadre juridique différent - le droit international de l'environnement - soient appliqués dans l'espace afin d’imposer des obligations plus strictes aux pays ayant des capacités spatiales. Ceci pourrait mener à une stratégie plus efficace et plus équitable pour préserver l'environnement spatial. En termes pratiques, le precautionary principle, le no-harm rule, et le common but differentiated responsibilities principle, devraient conduire à: (1) un plus grand égard aux mesures de réduction des débris spatiaux afin de stabiliser la population de débris; (2) l’amélioration des programmes de space situational awareness, grâce à un partage de données et informations plus détaillé et exact entre les États; et (3) la poursuite des recherches, des investissements, et la mise en œuvre éventuelle de technologies d'élimination des débris spatiaux. iv Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................................................................... II ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................... III RÉSUMÉ ......................................................................................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................V INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1 – SOURCES AND DANGERS OF SPACE DEBRIS ................................................................................... 3 I. EARTH’S ORBITS ................................................................................................................................................... 3 A. Low-Earth Orbit ........................................................................................................................................... 4 B. Medium-Earth Orbit .................................................................................................................................... 4 C. Geostationary Earth Orbit ........................................................................................................................... 5 D. Highly Elliptical Orbit................................................................................................................................... 5 II. LOCATION OF DEBRIS ............................................................................................................................................. 6 III. SOURCES OF DEBRIS .............................................................................................................................................. 6 A. Intentional Collisions ................................................................................................................................... 8 B. Accidental Collisions .................................................................................................................................... 8 IV. THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SPACE DEBRIS ................................................................................................................. 9 A. Collision of Debris with a Functional Space Object ................................................................................... 10 B. Risk of Debris Re-entry in Earth’s Atmosphere ......................................................................................... 11 C. The Kessler Syndrome ............................................................................................................................... 12 V. ATMOSPHERIC DRAG ........................................................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 2 – OUTER SPACE LAW AND ORBITAL DEBRIS ................................................................................... 14 I. SPACE LAW TREATIES .......................................................................................................................................... 15 A. Outer Space Treaty.................................................................................................................................... 16 B. Moon Agreement ...................................................................................................................................... 18 C. Liability Convention ................................................................................................................................... 19 D. Registration Convention............................................................................................................................ 23 E. The Rescue Agreement.............................................................................................................................. 25 II. INTERNATIONAL ACTORS ...................................................................................................................................... 25 A. International Telecommunication Union .................................................................................................. 26 B. Inter-Agency Debris Coordination Committee .......................................................................................... 29 C. United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ............................................................ 31 III.