MALAYSIAN CINEMA AND NEGOTIATIONS WITH MODERNITY: FILM AND ANTHROPOLOGY GORDON T. GRAY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Napier University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2002 Negotiations with Modernity i i This thesis is dedicated to three special women: Inez, for the initial inspiration; my mother, for confirming that university was the right choice; and Antonia, for keeping me going when things were at their very worst. Negotiations with Modernity iii DECLARATION This thesis was submitted to Napier University, Edinburgh for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The work described in this thesis was carried out initially under the supervision of Professor Paul Willemen (then of Napier University) and Dr. Janet Carsten of the University of Edinburgh, and latterly under Professor Desmond Bell of Napier University and Dr. Carsten. The work was undertaken in the School of Design and Media Arts. In accordance with Napier University regulations governing the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, the candidate submits this thesis as original unless otherwise referenced. During the period of this research one paper has been published. Details are presented below. Gray, G.T. 'Urbanism: The Symbol of Malay(sian) Modernity.' Urban Symbolism and Rituals: Proceedings of the International Symposium Organised by the IUAES Commission on Urban Anthropology, Ljubljana, June 23-25. 1997. Ed. Bozidar Jezernik. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1999. 155-17l. '1/ / "/ ,/ '1 ,/ ,i / f I,';, "" '7 f,l;/,~, / / y \" ''\ I ,/ ,--' "",' /" ~,/ )r/ / L Gordon T. Gray (Hons.) Lr Negotiations with Modernity iv Abstract This thesis examines Malaysian cinema in the context of the various processes and discourses of modernity. Analysing the processes of modernity which Malaysians are engaged with provides a crucial theme by which to demonstrate how various socio-political ideologies, institutions, and mechanisms may be promoted, rejected, or otherwise negotiated. This negotiation takes place in both Malaysian society and the cinematic representations of that society. Therefore, two discrete disciplines have been incorporated, those of anthropology and film studies. In the course of the thesis, discourses of modernity, encompassing processes and institutions, are addressed in terms of existing ethnographic literature, my own ethnographic research, and in the analyses of contemporary films. The introduction of an ethnographic background for the society in which the films are produced opens new vistas for film analysis. However, while the injection of anthropology into a film study has been a major concern, the importance of the reverse is also argued. Further, this thesis provides a multiple rendering of analyses, arguing that, as a symbolic media and/or art form, cinema is inherently open to alternative readings, 'mis'-readings, and re­ readings. One of the goals of thesis is, through a different synergy between film and anthropology, to provide some alternative answers to the ever-present question haunting the Malaysian cinema industry, namely "Why aren't our films successful?" Negotiations with Modernity v Table Of Contents Introduction 1 Overture 2 Negotiations with Modernity 2 Thesis Goals and Agendas 4 Thesis Outline 7 Chapter 1: Modernity and Modernisation 8 Chapter 2: Malaysian Cinema History 8 Chapter 3: Urbanisation 9 Chapter 4: Gender 10 Chapter 5: The Family and the Individual 11 Thesis Background 12 History 12 Malaysia and Modernity 19 Film 21 Film and Anthropology 29 Methodology 32 Evaluating the Research 39 Postscript 42 Chapter 1: Modernity and Modernisation 44 Introduction 45 Making Modern 46 Developing Modernity 48 After Modernity 55 Modernity and Malaysia 61 Modern Art 66 Chapter 2: History of the Malaysian Cinema 77 Prelude 78 The Early Days 79 The Early Film Era 84 The Japanese Occupation 89 The Studio Era 98 The Bumiputra Era 113 The Current Era 122 Chapter 3: Urbanism and Urbanisation 132 Introduction 133 Government Policy and Urbanism 135 The Kampung 138 Urbanisation and Newly Urban Malays 140 Symbolism and Imagery 145 Negotiations with Modernity vi Modernity, Urban Space, and the Films 150 Selubung 151 Femina 154 Gemilang 157 Thinking about the City 159 Chapter 4: Gender 161 Overview 162 The Kampung (reprise) 166 Malay Women and Malaysia Inc. 171 Bermadu 178 The Films 182 Femina 183 HanyaKawan 186 Gemilang 190 End Notes 194 Chapter 5: The Family and the Individual 197 Bringing Up the Family 198 The Kampung Family 200 The City Family 205 The Family at the Movies 213 'Writing-Out' the Family 215 Representing the Family 217 Working Around the Family 219 Structuring the Family 222 Focusing on the Individual 225 Malaysia and the Individual 227 The Individual and Film 233 Compromising the Family and the Individual 240 Conclusion 243 Crescendo 244 The Project: 1 245 The Project: 2 247 The Theme 250 The Platform 252 The Thesis 255 Coda 258 Appendix 1: Box Office figures for Malaysian Films 1996-2000 261 Appendix 2: Films and Videos Banned in Malaysia 1997 264 Negotiations with Modernity vii Filmography 274 Bibliography 279 Negotiations with Modernity viii Acknowledgements While it is only my name on the cover of this thesis, I could not have accomplished this work without the support and assistance of a great many people. To them lowe a huge debt which I can never truly repay. The comradeship of, and intellectual exchanges with, colleagues at both the University of Edinburgh and Napier University helped in no small way in pushing this work forward. I would especially like to thank; Doug Kline, Yeoh Seng Guan, Nor Hafizah bt. Selamat, Fiona Harris, Kostas Retsikas, Alessandra Caporale, Electra Bada, Caroline Rye, Tom Cunningham, and Sari Wastell. My supervisors have worked very hard to make me a better scholar, and challenged me intellectually throughout the course of preparing this thesis. To this end, lowe a great deal to Paul Willemen and Des Bell at Napier, and Janet Carsten at Edinburgh. I would also like to thank Mary Ann Kennedy and Colin Cavers at Napier, and Thomas Hansen, Iris Jean-Klein, Jeanne Cannizzo, and Charles Jedrej at Edinburgh for their support through what were at times very trying circumstances. I would also like to thank the various students who had the (mis)fortune to be guinea pigs for my development as a scholar and a teacher. I can not imagine what this work would have been like without the warmth and generosity of response I received during my research in Malaysia. To that end, I would like to extend my appreciation to the staff and students at FINAS, colleagues at Apresiasi Filem, and to my colleagues and informants within the Malaysian cinema industry. I particularly wish to acknowledge my adopted family. Without them, their care and consideration, and the openness of their welcome to a stranger in their home, this thesis truly would not have been possible. I also would like to thank my friends and family in both Canada and Scotland for their patience and support - both of which are greatly, greatly appreciated. I will add that none of the above are in any way responsible for errors, mis-interpretations, or mistakes in the thesis which is to follow. Those I lay claim to for myself. Negotiations with Modernity 1 Introduction 'It's over for now,' said Hawk. 'Settle for that. That's the trouble with legends; we demand they have a neat, comforting ending. The truth is rarely that obliging.' (Simon R. Green Beyond the Blue Moon 59) Negotiations with Modernity 2 Overture There is a scene in the Malay-language film Suami, Isteri dan ... ? (,Husband, Wife and ... ?,' Pansha 1996), in which we are watching the male and female leads speaking together. The action takes place in the house of the woman's parents, with the woman's mother present. At a certain point during this scene, the camera shifts from inside the house, as if we were present in the room, to outside the house, framing the shot through a window. This shift has the effect of placing the viewer outside the house as well, looking at the couple through the window. This camera shift is notable as it breaks the flow of the narrative, and our subjective positioning. This particular shot, filming an interior scene from outside, framed through a window or door, occurs frequently in Malay language films, tele-movies, and tele­ dramas, often enough to draw the attention of a non-Malaysian viewer. In one regard, this thesis is the result of my attempt to make sense of this particular stylistic within Malay-language cinema. At the end of this thesis, we will return to this scene, and examine it in light of the information provided through the course of my analyses of Malay cinema and negotiations with modernity. Negotiations with Modernity In the city of Madurai, cinema is everywhere. Glittenng billboards advertise the latest films, and smaller posters are slapped on to spare inches of wall space. Movie songs blare from horn speakers and cassette players at weddings, puberty rites, and temple and shrine festivals. Tapes of movie dialogues play at coffee stalls, while patrons join in reciting them. Rickshaws and shop boards are painted with movie stars' pictures. Young men and women follow dress and hairstyle fashions dictated by the latest films. Younger children trade movie star cards, learn to disco dance like the film actors, and recreate heroic battles in imitation of their Negotiations with Modernity 3 favourite stars. Fan club members meet in the streets to boast about their star and make fun of his rival. The visual and aural presence of cinema in this part of South India [ ... ] is matched by one of the highest production and filmwatching rates in the world (Dickey 1993: 3).1 The above quote illustrates quite clearly, concisely, and graphically what the situation for the Malaysian cinema industry is not.