Insects as human food: An overview 562 Amazôn., Rev. Antropol. (Online) 5 (3) Especial: Insects as human Insects as human food: An overview food: An overview E R A L D O M E D E I R O S C O S T A N E T O Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Brasil 563 Costa Neto, E. M. INSECTS AS HUMAN FOOD: AN OVERVIEW Abstract Although insects and the products elaborated and/or eliminated by them are used as food source by three thousand traditional societies in over 120 countries, current attitudes of repugnance regarding the con- sumption of edible insects cause that a considerable amount of animal protein becomes unavailable to those individuals who suffer from pro- tein deficiencies. Considering the nutritional qualities that insects have, they should be considered as renewable resources available for sustainable exploitation aiming at reducing the problem of malnutrition and hunger in many parts of the world. Keywords: Entomophagy, food safety, renewable resources, culture, insects. INSETOS COMO ALIMENTO HUMANO: UMA REVISÃO GERAL Resumo Embora os insetos e os produtos elaborados e/ou eliminados por eles se- jam usados como fonte de alimento por três mil grupos étnicos em mais de 120 países, as atitudes comuns de repugnância direcionadas ao consumo de insetos comestíveis levam a que uma quantidade considerável de proteína animal fique indisponível para aqueles indivíduos que sofrem de deficiências proteicas. Observando as qualidades nutricionais que os insetos possuem, eles deveriam ser considerados como recursos renováveis disponíveis para exploração sustentável, assim diminuindo o problema de desnutrição e fome em muitas partes do mundo. Palavras-chave: Entomofagia, segurança alimentar, recursos renováveis, cultura, insetos. 564 Amazôn., Rev. Antropol. (Online) 5 (3) Especial: 562-582, 2013 Insects as human food INSECTOS COMO ALIMENTO HUMANO: UNA VISIÓN GENERAL Resumen Aunque los insectos y los productos elaborados y/o eliminados por ellos sean utilizados como fuente de alimento por tres mil grupos étnicos en más de 120 países, las actitudes comunes de repugnancia hacía al consumo de insectos comestibles provoca que una cantidad considerable de proteína animal esté indisponible para aquellos individuos que sufren de deficiencias proteicas. Observándose las cualidades nutricionales que los insectos poseen, se debería considerarlos como recursos renovables disponibles para ex- ploración sostenida, así disminuyendo el problema de mala nutrición y el hambre en muchas partes del mundo. Palabras-clave: Entomofagia, seguridad alimentaria, recursos renovables, cultura, insectos. Endereço do autor para correspondência: Departamento de Ciências Bi- ológicas, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, avenida Transnordes- tina, S/N, Bairro: Novo Horizonte, CEP: 44036-900, Feira de Santana, BA, Brasil. E-mail: [email protected] Amazôn., Rev. Antropol. (Online) 5 (3) Especial: 562-582, 2013 565 Costa Neto, E. M. INTRODUCTION dietary supplement, as a replacement of other food in times of shortage, Insects have been used as foodstuffs or as the main constituent of the since the dawn of human race. Aus- diet. However, insect consumption tralopithecus robustus Broom, 1938 used is widespread since edible species are bone tools to dig into termite mounds used by approximately three thousand 500.000 years ago (van der Merwe et ethnic groups in 120 countries (Ra- al. 2003). There are rock paintings de- mos-Elorduy 2000). Almost all taxa picting humans collecting honey from are consumed, but some groups only beehives that date back to Paleolithic locally. While saturniid caterpillars, times (Hernández-Pacheco 1921). beetle grubs, grasshoppers and crickets Even in the Bible there are records of are popular almost everywhere, adult the use of insects as food. The manna dragonflies are consumed only in SE- was nothing more than the excretion Asia and certain salt flies only in the of the mealybug Trabutina mannipara USA (Bristowe 1932; Essig 1934; Ber- (Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1829) (Ho- gier 1941; Bodenheimer 1951; Stone moptera: Pseudococcidae). Females 1992; Malaisse 1997; Banjo et al. 2004; eliminate a sugary liquid that in arid DeFoliart 2004; Ramos-Elorduy 2004; climates dries over leaves and builds Yen 2009b). In some cases, only se- up in layers (Buzzi & Miyazaki 1993). lected instars of an insect species are In the Mideast, people still collect the consumed, e.g. termite imagos or wasp sweet excretion of scale insects that larvae and pupae. In other taxa, almost feed on tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera all stages are exploited, e.g. juvenile Kotschy ex Bunge). They call it “man” and adult grasshoppers and crickets and it is, most likely, the manna describe or ant eggs, larvae, pupae and imagos in the Old Testament (Hölldobler & (DeFoliart 1989). Wilson 1994). The degree of entomophagy in a Estimates of the number of insect country varies greatly and is influ- species that are consumed by humans enced by history, tradition and so- vary, but worldwide at least 1,400 spe- ciety. In most developing countries, cies have been recorded as human insects are mainly consumed by in- food (Durst & Shono 2010). Depending digenous sectors of low income, on species and instar, they are rich in showing that insects, in their pres- proteins, fats, carbohydrates or salts, ent form of usage, represent an eco- providing the consumers with valuable nomical source for animal protein nutrients that are reasonably easy to (Ramos-Elorduy 2011). There are obtain, usually by selecting the ani- exceptions to this rule, e.g. Mexican mals in their natural habitat (Ramos- ant pupae (“escamole”) consumed Elorduy et al. 1997, 1998a, 1998b). In as delicatessen or an array of insects fact, most traditionally-living cultures consumed deep-fried in streets of still practice entomophagy, consuming Thailand (Maheu 2011). a set of many different species as a 566 Amazôn., Rev. Antropol. (Online) 5 (3) Especial: 562-582, 2013 Insects as human food Insects are also consumed indirectly grubs and caterpillars (Ramos-Elorduy through ingestion of contaminated food et al. 2008). Some works suggested using as eggs, feces and even fragments of wild pest species as food, especially wings, legs and antennae of cockroaches, grasshoppers (Cerritos & Cano San- bees, ants, crickets and other insects tana 2008), while others express their are found. This is due to the impos- concern regarding insect consump- sibility of complete removal of in- tion from the wild (Ramos Elorduy sect parts from food products (Posey 2006; Yen 2009a). A series of works 1986). According to Myers (1983), the contemplates the health risks associated Food and Drug Administration of with managing insects (Adamolekun U.S.A. (FDA) is acceptable as the en- et al. 1997; Akinnawo et al. 2002). counter of five insects or insect parts FAO believes that the specific role of to 100g of apple butter and 30 insect edible insects and their potential in food fragments per 100g peanut butter. safety, quality diet and poverty allevia- tion is severely underestimated (van They are also eaten through the substances Huis 2012). Recently, this organization produced by them and used by us as held a meeting on entomophagy in colorants. Today, most culinary dyes Asia (Durst et al. 2010), showing both have synthetic origin, but in the past diversity and potential of insect con- the red and pink colors were obtained sumption across Asia. However, most from insects. The pigment phenoxa- data focuses on animals captured from zine (orange) extracted from Pachilis the wild. Still, this conference created gigas B. (Hemiptera: Coreidae) showed more awareness in seriously considering high dyeing power; it can be used as a entomophagy as a part to solving the colorant to ice creams, cheese, mayonnaise food supply problems to come. and cream (Perez et al. 1989). The red carmine pigment extracted from Dac- For each traditionally-consumed spe- tylopius coccus Costa, 1835 (Homoptera: cies there is a history of safe use that Dactylopiidae) is used as a dye for intends to minimize the consumption coloring drinks. risks. Saturniid caterpillars in Western Africa have to be boiled before further Most traditionally-consumed insects processing in order to inactivate the may be picked, handled and con- inherent thiaminase; cases of beriberi verted into nutritious foodstuff easily have been associated to indiscriminate (Johnson 2010). Traditionally, insects consumption of raw caterpillars. The are consumed either in a raw state or history of safe use is also important in heated in some fashion. Depending on order to tell inoffensive species from the culture, heating occurs in hot ashes, toxic ones (van Huis 2012). In this toasting devices or by deep-frying regard, Blum (1994) discusses on the them in oil. In dry areas, preservation toxicity of insects eaten by humans, is done by heating and posterior sun- providing several examples of species drying; eventually, evisceration was that should be avoided as food, such as performed before, as in the case of Amazôn., Rev. Antropol. (Online) 5 (3) Especial: 562-582, 2013 567 Costa Neto, E. M. cyanogenic species (e.g., butterflies of the pederin, a non-protein compound the families Nymphalidae and Helico- that is a potent inhibitor of protein nidae), vesicants species (e.g., Lonomia synthesis and mitosis. moths), those ones that produce ste- In general, the determinants of the use roids (e.g., Ilybius fenestratus Fabricius, of insects as a food resource for humans 1781, Dysticidae) and corticosteroids result from four variables: 1) physical hormones (e.g., Dytiscus marginalis Lin- environment; 2) availability and acces- naeus, 1758, Dysticidae), necrotoxic sibility of insects that, in turn, depend alkaloids (e.g., fire ants Solenopsis spp.) on their life cycle, host plants, behavioral and toluene (e.g., cerambicids of the adaptations and general ecology; 3) genus Syllitus). According to this au- mode of production and subsistence thor, the scientific knowledge about methods of a given culture; 4) dietary the toxic effects of most natural in- restrictions, both nutritionally and tem- sects is still very scarce.