CHEMISTRY 3RD EDITION *Brown 3e - Prelims.indd 1 26/06/13 2:19 PM detailed contents Preface xxii STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY The features of Guided tour for students xxiv this book 22 Guided tour for students and educators xxvi Chapter summary and key terms 23 Guided tour for educators xxviii Key skills 23 Acknowledgements xxix Key equations 23 About the Australian authors xxx Exercises 23 About the American authors xxxii chapter 1 chapter 2 Introduction: Matter and Atoms, molecules and ions 28 measurement 2 1.1 The study of chemistry 4 2.1 Atomic theory of matter 30 The atomic and molecular perspective of 2.2 The discovery of atomic structure 31 chemistry 4 Cathode rays and electrons 31 Why study chemistry? 5 Radioactivity 32 1.2 Classifications of matter 5 The nuclear atom 33 States of matter 5 2.3 The modern view of atomic structure 34 Composition of matter 6 A CLOSER LOOK Basic forces 36 1.3 Properties of matter 8 Atomic numbers, mass numbers and Physical and chemical changes 9 isotopes 36 Separation of mixtures 9 2.4 Atomic mass 37 1.4 Units of measurement 10 The atomic mass scale 37 SI units 10 Average atomic masses 38 A CLOSER LOOK The scientific method 11 A CLOSER LOOK The mass spectrometer 39 Derived SI units 14 2.5 The periodic table 39 1.5 Uncertainty in measurement 16 2.6 Molecules and molecular compounds 42 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Molecules and chemical formulae 42 Chemistry in the news 16 Molecular and empirical formulae 42 Precision and accuracy 18 Picturing molecules 43 Significant figures 18 Significant figures in calculations 20 2.7 Ions and ionic compounds 44 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY The importance Predicting ionic charges 45 of practice and estimating answers 21 Ionic compounds 46 *Brown 3e - Prelims.indd 6 26/06/13 2:19 PM detailed contents vii MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Elements 3.6 Quantitative information from balanced required by living organisms 48 chemical equations 87 2.8 Naming inorganic compounds 48 3.7 Limiting reactants 90 Names and formulae of ionic compounds 49 Theoretical yields 92 Names and formulae of acids 54 Chapter summary and key terms 94 Names and formulae of binary molecular Key skills 95 compounds 55 Key equations 95 Exercises 96 2.9 Some simple organic compounds 56 Alkanes 56 chapter 4 Some derivatives of alkanes 56 Reactions in aqueous solutions 102 Chapter summary and key terms 58 Key skills 59 Exercises 59 chapter 3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with chemical formulae and equations 66 4.1 General properties of aqueous solutions 104 Electrolytic properties 104 Ionic compounds in water 105 Molecular compounds in water 106 Strong and weak electrolytes 106 4.2 Precipitation reactions 107 3.1 Chemical equations 68 Solubility guidelines for ionic compounds 108 Balancing equations 68 Exchange (metathesis) reactions 109 Indicating the states of reactants and products 70 Ionic equations 110 3.2 Some simple patterns of chemical 4.3 Acids, bases and neutralisation reactivity 71 reactions 112 Combination and decomposition reactions 71 Acids 112 Combustion reactions 74 Bases 112 Strong and weak acids and bases 113 3.3 Formula mass 75 Formula and molecular masses 75 Neutralisation reactions and salts 114 Percentage composition from formulae 76 Neutralisation reactions with gas formation 116 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Problem solving 76 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Antacids 117 4.4 Oxidation–reduction reactions 118 3.4 Avogadro’s number and the mole 77 Molar mass 78 Oxidation and reduction 118 Oxidation numbers 119 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Glucose monitoring 80 Oxidation of metals by acids and salts 120 Interconverting masses and moles 81 The activity series 122 Interconverting masses and numbers of A CLOSER LOOK The aura of gold 124 particles 82 4.5 Concentrations of solutions 125 3.5 Empirical formulae from analyses 83 Molarity 125 Molecular formulae from empirical formulae 85 Expressing the concentration of an electrolyte 126 Combustion analysis 85 Interconverting molarity, moles and volume 127 *Brown 3e - Prelims.indd 7 26/06/13 2:19 PM viii Chemistry: the central science Dilution 128 A CLOSER LOOK The dawning of the MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Drinking too nuclear age 166 much water can kill you 128 Nuclear waste 166 4.6 Solution stoichiometry and chemical 5.8 Nuclear power: Fusion 167 analysis 130 5.9 Radiation in the environment and living Titrations 131 systems 168 Chapter summary and key terms 135 Radiation doses 169 Key skills 136 Radon 170 Key equations 136 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Radiation therapy 170 Exercises 136 Chapter summary and key terms 172 Key skills 173 chapter 5 Key equations 173 Nuclear chemistry: Changes within Exercises 174 the core of an atom 142 chapter 6 Electronic structure of atoms 178 5.1 Radioactivity 144 Nuclear equations 144 6.1 The wave nature of light 180 Types of radioactive decay 145 6.2 Quantised energy and photons 183 5.2 Patterns of nuclear stability 147 Hot objects and the quantisation of energy 183 Neutron-to-proton ratio 147 The photoelectric effect and photons 184 Radioactive series 149 Further observations 149 6.3 Line spectra and the Bohr model 185 Line spectra 186 5.3 Nuclear transmutations 151 Bohr’s model 187 Accelerating charged particles 151 The energy states of the hydrogen atom 187 Reactions involving neutrons 152 Limitations of the Bohr model 189 Transuranium elements 152 6.4 The wave behaviour of matter 189 5.4 Rates of radioactive decay 152 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Australian Radiometric dating 154 Synchrotron 191 Calculations based on half-life 155 The uncertainty principle 191 5.5 Detection of radioactivity 157 6.5 Quantum mechanics and atomic orbitals 192 Radiotracers 159 Orbitals and quantum numbers 194 5.6 Energy changes in nuclear reactions 159 6.6 Representations of orbitals 196 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Medical The s orbitals 196 applications of radiotracers 160 The p orbitals 198 Nuclear binding energies 162 The d and f orbitals 199 5.7 Nuclear power: Fission 163 A CLOSER LOOK Probability density and radial Nuclear reactors 164 probability functions 200 *Brown 3e - Prelims.indd 8 26/06/13 2:19 PM detailed contents ix 6.7 Many-electron atoms 200 Chapter summary and key terms 243 Orbitals and their energies 200 Key skills 244 Key equation 244 Electron spin and the Pauli exclusion principle 201 Exercises 244 6.8 Electron configurations 202 chapter 8 Hund’s rule 203 Basic concepts of chemical Electron configurations 205 bonding 250 Transition metals 206 The lanthanides and actinides 206 6.9 Electron configurations and the periodic table 207 Anomalous electron configurations 210 Chapter summary and key terms 212 Key skills 213 8.1 Chemical bonds, Lewis symbols and Key equations 213 the octet rule 252 Exercises 213 Lewis symbols 252 The octet rule 252 chapter 7 8.2 Ionic bonding 253 Periodic properties of the elements 220 Energetics of ionic bond formation 254 Electron configurations of ions of the main-group elements 256 Transition metal ions 257 Polyatomic ions 258 8.3 Covalent bonding 258 Lewis structures 258 Multiple bonds 260 7.1 Development of the periodic table 222 8.4 Bond polarity and electronegativity 260 7.2 Effective nuclear charge 223 Electronegativity 261 A CLOSER LOOK Effective nuclear charge 225 Electronegativity and bond polarity 262 7.3 Sizes of atoms and ions 225 Dipole moments 263 Periodic trends in atomic radii 227 Differentiating ionic and covalent bonding 265 Periodic trends in ionic radii 228 8.5 Drawing Lewis structures 267 7.4 Ionisation energy 230 Formal charge 269 Variations in successive ionisation energies 231 A CLOSER LOOK Oxidation numbers, formal Periodic trends in first ionisation energies 232 charges and actual partial charges 272 Electron configurations of ions 234 8.6 Resonance structures 272 7.5 Electron affinities 235 8.7 Exceptions to the octet rule 274 7.6 Metals, non-metals and metalloids 236 Odd number of electrons 275 Metals 237 Less than an octet of valence electrons 275 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Ion movement More than an octet of valence electrons 276 powers electronics 238 8.8 Strengths of covalent bonds 277 Non-metals 241 Bond enthalpies and the enthalpies of Metalloids 242 reactions 278 *Brown 3e - Prelims.indd 9 26/06/13 2:19 PM x Chemistry: the central science MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Explosives and Chapter summary and key terms 328 Alfred Nobel 281 Key skills 329 Bond enthalpy and bond length 282 Key equations 329 Exercises 329 Chapter summary and key terms 284 Key skills 284 Key equations 285 chapter 10 Exercises 285 Intermolecular forces: Gases 336 chapter 9 Molecular geometry and bonding theories 292 10.1 Characteristics of gases 338 10.2 Pressure and its measurement 338 MY WORLD OF CHEMISTRY Blood pressure 340 9.1 Molecular shapes 294 10.3 The gas laws 341 9.2 The VSEPR model 296 The pressure–volume relationship: Boyle’s law 341 The effect of non-bonding electrons and The temperature–volume relationship: multiple bonds on bond angles 300 Charles’s law 342 Molecules with expanded valence shells 301 The quantity–volume relationship: Shapes of larger molecules 304 Avogadro’s law 342 9.3 Molecular shape and molecular polarity 305 10.4 The ideal-gas equation 344 9.4 Covalent bonding and orbital overlap 307 Relating the ideal-gas equation and the gas laws 346 9.5 Hybrid orbitals 309 sp hybrid orbitals 309 10.5 Further applications of the ideal-gas equation 348 sp2 and sp3 hybrid orbitals 311 Gas densities and molar mass 348 Hybridisation involving d orbitals 312 Volumes of gases in chemical reactions 350 Hybrid orbital summary 312 10.6 Gas mixtures and partial pressures 351 9.6 Multiple bonds 314 Partial pressures and mole