THE DIGITAL CHILD AT PLAY: HOW TECHNOLOGICAL, POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL RULE SYSTEMS SHAPE CHILDREN’S PLAY IN VIRTUAL WORLDS by Sara M. Grimes MA in Communication, Simon Fraser University 2005 BA (Hons) in Communication, University of Ottawa 2003 DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the School of Communication © Sara M. Grimes SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2010 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. Approval Name: Sara M. Grimes Degree: PhD In Communication Title of Thesis: The Digital Child at Play: How Technological, Political and Commercial Rule Systems Shape Children’s Play in Virtual Worlds Examining Committee: Chair: Martin Laba Dr. Andrew Feenberg Senior Supervisor Professor ______________________________________ Dr. Richard Gruneau Supervisor Professor ______________________________________ Dr. Alissa Antle Supervisor Assistant Professor ______________________________________ James Bizzocchi Internal Examiner Assistant Professor, School of Interactive Art and Technology ______________________________________ Dr. Celia Pearce External Examiner Assistant Professor of Digital Media School of Literature, Communication & Culture Georgia Institute of Technology ______________________________________ Date Defended/Approved: May 3, 2010 ii Declaration of Partial Copyright Licence The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. 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Simon Fraser University Library Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada Last update: Spring 2010 Abstract Over the past three decades, digital gaming has become an increasingly important part of children’s culture. While this development has attracted significant academic attention, much less attention has been given to the technological dimensions of the games themselves. As critical theories of technology demonstrate, however, technological artifacts are far from “neutral.” Rather, technologies embody and at times reproduce the social, economic and political conditions within which they are constructed. Through the inclusion of certain technological affordances (and not others), design decisions, industry norms, legal/regulatory requirements, and programmed game rules, this thesis argues that corporate priorities and dominant discourses about children’s digital play become embedded within the very technical code of digital games. Focusing on game-themed virtual worlds, or massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), this thesis uncovers the political and social dimensions of children’s MMOGs, and identifies the conditions these new game systems introduce into children’s play. Drawing on a multidisciplinary theoretical framework, the research methodology follows a two-level approach to children’s MMOGs as sites of struggle, in which children are in constant negotiation with the games’ formal and informal “rule systems,” which include industry trends, design choices, game rules, and government policy. A general overview of the children’s multiplayer online game environment is provided, and major trends are identified. In-depth analysis of six case studies is provided, which include Nicktropolis, BarbieGirls, Toontown and Club Penguin, Magi-Nation and GalaXseeds. Through design analysis, political economic analysis, and in-game observations, this examination reveals how systems of regulation, social assumptions and power relations are reflected within the rule systems contained within the design, management and configuration of the games and their players. The findings reveal that the games contain a rigid rule system aimed at aligning children’s play with commercial interests. Although players are able to workaround and occasionally subvert the games’ many rule systems in their online play, user initiative is limited by reflexivity and a narrow margin of manoeuvre. The discussion concludes that the privileging of cross-promotional interests enforced by the underlying technical code of children’s MMOGs has lead to a dramatic reduction in opportunities for cultural participation, player creativity and collaboration. Keywords: virtual worlds; digital games; play; children’s digital culture; technology studies; commercialization; transmedia intertextuality; cultural rights and participation; rules of play; political economy of communication. iii Dedication I would like to dedicate this dissertation to Patrick Grimes, my grandfather, whose heartfelt appreciation of education and hard work was a constant inspiration to keep going, to do better. And to Annabelle Grimes, my sister, whose sincere appreciation for fun and play kept me on the right track throughout my research. iv Acknowledgements I am extremely fortunate to have had the opportunity to benefit from an incredible network of support, insight, and guidance over the course of my graduate career. I would especially like to thank Richard Gruneau, Alissa Antle and Sonia Livingstone, for their feedback, their questions (and answers!), and for challenging me to delve ever deeper. I would also like to thank Rosemary Coombe, Leslie Regan Shade, and Richard Smith for teaching me so much about generosity and academic collegiality. A special thanks to Andrew Feenberg, who has been my mentor, intellectual guide, ally, and calm voice of reason since my very first semester as a graduate student. My work proudly bears the imprint of our time together. Thanks to my wonderful family, whose undying support gave me the confidence to attempt a PhD in the first place. To my parents, Margaret Elliott and Tom Grimes, as well as Johanne Bouchard, Andreas Reichert, my grandmother Leona Grimes, and my siblings Emilie, Colin and Melissa Grimes. A special thanks and acknowledgement to Annabelle Grimes, my unofficial research assistant throughout this project, as well as Zachary Hotte, for keeping me in the loop about kids’ online games. There is no sufficient way to acknowledge the range and breadth of support given to me by my partner and colleague Neil Narine. We started and completed this journey together, and you could not have been a more perfect travelling companion. If every dissertation is a collaborative process, you are without a doubt my co-author. This project was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. I would like to thank the people at SSHRC for their ongoing support of my research, and acknowledge the vital importance of a federal funding program that supports academic studies focused on critical inquiry, measured analyses of media and popular culture,