Running head: THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 1 The Courage to be Resilient: A Paradigm Shift A Literature Review Presented to The Faculty of Adler Graduate School _________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy _________________________ By Danielle Marie Osterman _________________________ Chair: Richard Close, DMin, LMFT, LPCC Reader: Jean Budge, MA, LMFT _________________________ December 2017 THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 2 The Courage to be Resilient: A Paradigm Shift Copyright ©2017 Danielle Marie Osterman All rights reserved THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 3 Abstract The author reviewed a selection of studies addressing the construct of resilience after traumatic events. The prevalence of resilience as a trajectory different from recovery, posttraumatic growth, or pathology was examined. Study samples reviewed in the literature consisted primarily of adult and adolescent participants exposed to traumatic or potentially traumatic events, either of a chronic or stress-related nature. A brief review of trauma typology and definitions of resilience is offered. Several risk and protective factors were affirmed in the literature including coping strategies, self-esteem/self-enhancement, emotion regulation/self-control, appraisal, previous adversity, gender, optimism, social support/social network, and purpose in life/spirituality. Cautions regarding risk factors are discussed and pose opportunities for further research. A paradigm shift from pathogenic-focused research to salutogenic-focused research is proposed, based on the work of Aaron Antonovsky. The compatibility of resilience-informed research with Adlerian theory and psychotherapy is also presented, as well as suggestions for trauma-competent practitioners. THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 4 Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 3 The Courage to be Resilient: A Paradigm Shift.............................................................................. 5 Defining Trauma ............................................................................................................................. 6 The Origin of Resilience Research ................................................................................................. 8 Defining Resilience ......................................................................................................................... 9 Differential Definitions ......................................................................................................... 11 The Nature of Resilience .............................................................................................................. 13 Risk and Protective Factors .......................................................................................................... 14 Coping Strategies .................................................................................................................. 17 Self-Esteem and Self-Enhancement ...................................................................................... 18 Emotion Regulation and Self-Control ................................................................................... 19 Appraisal ............................................................................................................................... 20 Previous Adversity ................................................................................................................ 21 Gender ................................................................................................................................... 22 Optimism ............................................................................................................................... 22 Social Support and Social Networks ..................................................................................... 23 Purpose in Life and Spirituality ............................................................................................. 25 Cautions Regarding Risk and Protective Factors.......................................................................... 25 Measuring Resilience .................................................................................................................... 27 Adult Rating Scales ............................................................................................................... 28 Salutogenic Theory ....................................................................................................................... 30 Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology .......................................................................................... 31 Therapy and the Trauma-Competent Practitioner ......................................................................... 34 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 36 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 41 Areas for Further Study ................................................................................................................ 42 References ..................................................................................................................................... 43 THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 5 The Courage to be Resilient: A Paradigm Shift Over the last fifty years, researchers have attempted to shed light on the ways in which individuals exhibit resilience after trauma. Some people flourish after adversity while others do not. The majority of those who experience a traumatic event fail to develop posttraumatic stress disorder. It is common for people to seem unaffected or even to grow after a traumatic event. Some people appear more resilient than others. Resilience is different than recovery. Resilience after trauma is common and not necessarily pathological. Resilience can be cultivated and is not generally considered an innate personality trait. The majority of the research on trauma has focused on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its symptoms in response to trauma, but recently researchers have started to focus on another concept: the prevalence of resilience after traumatic events. According to Wills and O’Carroll Bantum (2012), previous research “has indicated that a proportion of individuals who are exposed to stressful conditions do not show significant adverse effects” (p. 568). Many people continue to be able to achieve personal and interpersonal tasks even in the face of significant adversity (Westphal & Bonanno, 2007). Scholars agree with the notion that trauma research has focused too long on only the symptomatic trajectory; it is not surprising that dramatic reactions have flooded the loss and trauma research (Bonanno, 2005, p. 135). Bonanno (2005) has observed that the opposite response to trauma (the preservation of a relatively unchanged trajectory of functioning following a traumatic event) has rarely been studied, until recently. Researchers have generally conceptualized resilience as one of two extremes: either as a mark of extraordinary strength or as a deviation and an indication of extreme denial. Numerous studies have confirmed the notion that resilience is actually a common and adaptive response following a potentially traumatic event. Almedom and Glandon (2007) THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 6 recognized resilience as a common reaction to disaster (pp. 128-129). Bonanno (2005) supported this notion and agreed that even though symptom levels varied according to traumatic event type, the most common outcome was consistently resilience (p. 136). Westphal and Bonanno (2007) also reported that a large number of studies have established that the majority of individuals who have experienced a potentially traumatic event demonstrated a “stable trajectory of healthy functioning, or resilience, in both personal and interpersonal spheres across time” (p. 420). Defining Trauma The word “trauma” receives frequent attention in literature surrounding resiliency. Trauma is commonly diagnosed as PTSD or posttraumatic stress disorder. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013), PTSD is defined as: 1. exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual violence 2. presence of recurring, involuntary, and distressing memories, dreams, dissociative reactions (e.g. flashbacks); 3. persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event; 4. negative alterations in cognitions and mood associated with the traumatic event; and 5. marked alterations in arousal or reactivity associated with the traumatic event (p 271- 272). PTSD was first classified in the late 1970’s to help understand the psychopathological aftermath experienced by a large number of Vietnam veterans, and later expanded early research on rape, domestic violence, and child abuse (Resick et al., 2012, p. 242). However, the PTSD diagnosis was not originally designed to distinguish between different types of traumatic events (Wamser-Nanney & Vandenberg, 2013, p. 672). THE COURAGE TO BE RESILIENT 7 Trauma research and theory has broadly classified trauma into two categories, Type I and Type II trauma. Mahoney and Markel (2016) explain that Type I trauma refers to