IDENTITY, BELONGING AND POLITICAL ACTIVISM IN THE SRI LANKAN COMMUNITIES IN GERMANY MICHAELA R. TOLD A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of East London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2014 ABSTRACT This research examines the dynamic relationship of Sinhalese and Tamils living in Germany in regards to their home and host country, and seeks to better understand the complexities of their political involvement. The research is based on qualitative research methodologies. The author conducted 30 interviews in Berlin during the period 2006–2008 to inform this research. The research not only provides an overview of the historical contexts of Sri Lanka and Germany, it also links these histories with the processes of out- migration from Sri Lanka and in-migration to Germany. It then continues to analyse the construction of belonging in the context of the Sri Lankan diaspora communities in Berlin. The research examines how far concepts of home, citizenship, nationalism and identity construction shape the sense of belonging of first and second generation Sinhalese and Tamils in Berlin. Finally, it analyses the ways the members of the Sri Lankan diaspora communities engage in economic, political, social, cultural and virtual activities in the home and host country, and how far these activities shape belonging and are politically motivated. The research also considers and studies the gendered nature of belonging and transnational political practices. The research uniquely combines the study of the Tamil diaspora with the study of the Sinhalese diaspora in Berlin. It allows new insights into the complex and multiple constructions of belonging and identity and into the interplay of gender, ethnicity and generations, and it highlights the importance of political activism in the conceptualization of belonging. Key words: belonging, diaspora, gender, Germany, identity, Sri Lanka, transnationalism, qualitative research. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................... V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................. VII DEDICATION................................................................................. IX CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................... 1 Relevance of this research and research questions..................................5 The structure of this thesis ..........................................................................8 CHAPTER 2: EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................. 11 Epistemological framework........................................................................13 Methodological framework.........................................................................16 Considerations regarding the research methods and data analysis......20 Some ethical considerations......................................................................28 Scope and limitations of this research......................................................29 CHAPTER 3: THE ETHNIC CONFLICT IN SRI LANKA AND ITS MIGRATION FLOWS.................................................................... 31 Post-independence Sri Lanka and its migration flows ............................32 Language as identity marker and the first anti-Tamil riots......................36 The rise of the Sinhalese and Tamil youth movements...........................41 Anti-Tamil riots and the emergence of the LTTE......................................44 The militarization of society in the 1990s..................................................48 The ceasefire agreement and the end of the war .....................................49 CHAPTER 4: FROM GUEST WORKERS TO A ‘MULTICULTURAL’ SOCIETY IN GERMANY.............................. 52 Economic migration into Germany after World War II .............................53 Asylum seekers and refugees in the 1980s ..............................................59 The fall of the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall.........................................62 Racist sentiments against immigrants......................................................66 Migration-related initiatives from the EU...................................................67 The development of a new legal framework .............................................67 Sri Lankans in Germany: Their citizenship and multicultural Germany.69 iii CHAPTER 5: BELONGING, CITIZENSHIP AND IDENTITY......... 73 Framing belonging ......................................................................................73 Diasporic belonging....................................................................................74 Relating to ‘home’ and ‘homeland’............................................................76 Creating an ‘imagined home’ .....................................................................85 Relating to citizenship ................................................................................89 Relating to nationalism...............................................................................94 Constructing identities ...............................................................................97 Multiple identities......................................................................................100 Ethical and political value systems .........................................................104 CHAPTER 6: TRANSNATIONAL POLITICAL PRACTICES ...... 105 Economic activities...................................................................................108 Political activities ......................................................................................117 Social activities .........................................................................................132 Cultural activities ......................................................................................141 Virtual activities.........................................................................................152 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS.................................................... 157 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................... 169 iv ABBREVIATIONS ADS Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes (Federal Anti- Discrimination Office) AGG Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz (General Equal Treatment Act) CDU Christlich Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union) CP Communist Party of Sri Lanka CSU Christlich Sozialistische Union (Christian Socialist Union) DDC District Development Council EC European Community EPRLF Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front EROS Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students EU EuropeanUnion FDP Freie Demokratische Partei (Free Democratic Party) FP Federal Party (of Sri Lanka) FRG Federal Republic of Germany GDR German Democratic Republic GoSL GovernmentofSriLanka IATJ International Association of Tamil Journalists INSD International Network of Sri Lankan Diaspora IOM International Organization for Migration IPKF Indian Peace Keeping Force JDS Journalists for Democracy in Sri Lanka JHU Jathika Hela Urumaya (Buddhist Monks’ Party) JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (People’s Liberation Front) KPD Kommunistische Partei Deutschland (Communist Party of Germany) LSSP LankaSamaSamajaParty LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam NFR Networking for Rights NGO Non-Governmental Organization v PDS Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus (Party of Democratic Socialism) PLOTE People’s Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam PSO Public Service Ordinance PTA Prevention of Terrorism Act PTOMs Post-Tsunami Operational Management SED Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) SLA Sri Lanka Association Berlin e.V. SLDF Sri Lanka Democratic Forum SLFP Sri Lankan Freedom Party SLMC Sri Lanka Muslim Congress SPD Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (Social Democratic Party of Germany) TELO Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation TMVP Thamil Makkal Vidudal Puligal TNA Tamil National Alliance TRO Tamil Rehabilitation Organisation TULF Tamil United Liberation Front UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHRC United Nations Human Rights Council UNP United National Party UPFA United People’s Freedom Party US United States VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol WW II World War II vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This PhD thesis has been an incredible journey and an adventure. It started out of the desire to contribute to Sri Lankan history a small piece of intellectual reflection at a time when I worked full time at an international organization. The journey had to overcome many hurdles, not only that of a working ‘student’ but also of a tsunami hitting Sri Lanka, the loss of family members and close friends, a constantly changing political environment and the beauty of new life emerging. This journey will not end here: it will continue but it has found a temporary moment of rest. And, as such, it has ended with the same passion as it was started with. I am still convinced that a history is to be told that nobody has yet accounted for: the history of diaspora Sri Lankans – Tamils and Sinhalese alike – and their political contribution to rebuilding peace and a more just society, but also, unfortunately, their role in fostering nationalism and conflict. This journey also ended still working full time and with a son to nurture and grow with. It ended in an incredible story of write-up, which should be told at a later