THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY CHINESE BUDDHA FIGURES CHANG YUAN ZANG （VEN. ZI HUI） A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Buddhist Studies) Graduate School Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Phra Nakhon Si Ayuttaya, Thailand C.E. 2018 The Evolution of Early Chinese Buddha Figures Chang Yuan Zang （Ven. Zi Hui） A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Buddhist Studies) Graduate School Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University C.E. 2018 (Copyright by Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University) Dissertation Title : The Evolution of Early Chinese Buddha Figures Researcher : Chang Yuan Zang (Ven. Zi Hui) Degree : Doctor of Philosophy (Buddhist Studies) Dissertation Supervisory Committee : Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr., Pāli VIII, B.A. (English), M.A (Buddhist Studies), Ph.D. (Buddhist Studies) : Phramaha Somboon Vuḍḍhikaro, Dr. Pāli VII, B.A. (English), M.A (Buddhist Studies), Ph.D. (Buddhist Studies) Date of Completion : October 25, 2018 Abstract This dissertation is concerned with the study of the evolution of early Chinese Buddha figures that were produced over the period of Eastern Han dynasty (25 BC-220 AD) through to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The objectives of the research are: (1) to study the introduction of Buddha figures into China; (2) to study the evolution of early Chinese Buddha figures; and (3) to study the main factors that influenced the evolution of early Chinese Buddha figures. The main aim of this research is to do crucial link period in which foreign Buddha figure evolved a distinctly Chinese style. To find out how did the Buddha figures that had been introduced into China and what were the characteristics and form of early Chinese Buddha figures during its evolution. Importantly, what factors influenced the transformation of Buddha figures that from foreign looking into figures of unique Chinese style. From the study, it has been find that: There were two major routes of Buddha figures were introduced into China from India, one was the Silk Road and other was the Maritime Silk Road. Along with the Silk Road, when Buddha figures first occurred in Western and Eastern Central Asia were mainly influenced by Ganghara art. From the site of Kashgar in Eastern Central Asia, Buddha figures moved further east to Chang An. Researcher also found that the official record of a Buddha figure being bought for the first time into ancient China was probably in Gandhara style, the further study of historical remains certainly proved the earliest Buddha figures was of Gandhara form in the Eastern Han period, and Buddha figure also already started evolved with Chinese culture and made by Chinese artisans. Further research found that Buddha figures evolved in different characteristics of robe style, facial features, hair style. And the evolution of early Chinese Buddha figures has divided into three main periods: 1) The evolutionary period for foreign style. 2) The evolutionary period for mixed style. And 3) the evolutionary period for Chinese style. The attitude of emperors, local aesthetics, styles of Chinese clothing and the techniques from outside of Buddhist sphere as the external factor, and the development of the Buddhist teaching, changes in the faith expressed towards different Buddhas and the tricīvara in Mahayana Vinaya from inside of Buddhist world considered as the internal factors, both of the causes been the major factors that directly or indirectly to influence on the changes of appearance and style of early Chinese Buddha figures. Acknowledgements I would like to express my great indebtedness to Mahachulaongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand, which provided me with such a good opportunity to complete my Ph.D. degree in Buddhist Studies. Further, my deepest appreciation goes out to the Most Ven. Prof. Dr. Phra Brahmapundit, the rector of MCU, who has the profound knowledge to guide his students skillfully, and to my master the Most Ven. Shi Ming Yi, who guided and supported me to study in MCU. The Most Ven. Phra Sophonvachirabhorn (Sawai Chotiko), the Vice Rector for Foreign Affairs MCU, gave me a large amount of assistances during my study in Thailand. I would like to thanks all the directors, teachers, and staff at the university, who always helped me. I would like to express my sincerest thanks to my supervisory chairman, Ven. Dr. Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, and adviser Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somboon Vuḍḍhikaro, their insightful comments and knowledge were always useful and helped me in doing this work. Without the assistance and guidance of them, my dissertation could not have completed. My gratitude would also go to the chairman and members of the exam committee, whose comments, suggestions and questions really improved the quality of my research work. I also would like to express my special thanks to Mrs. Zhang Shaoying, who supported and encouraged me over years. Further thanks go out to the people who provided me with a lot of help and assistance. Without their help, I would never have finished my studies successfully. Last but not least, I would like to offer my profoundest gratitude to my family: my father Mr. Zang Lianzhong, my mother Mrs. Zhao Yuxia, and my sisters Mrs. Zang Li, and Ms. Zang Jinjin. They always cared about what I was doing, and they offered me their unconditional support. My family kept me going. Chang Yuan Zang (Ven. Zi Hui) October 25, 2018 i Table of Contents Pages Abstract Error! Bookmark not defined. Acknowledgements Error! Bookmark not defined. Table of Contents of i List of Abbreviations iv Chapter I: Introduction Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.1 Background and Significance of the Problem Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2 Objectives of the Research Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.3 Statement of the Problems Desired to Know Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.4 Scope of the Research Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.5 Definitions of the Terms Used in the Research Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.6 Review of Related Literature and Research Work Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.7 Research Methodology Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.8 Conceptual Framework Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.9 Expected Benefits of the Research Error! Bookmark not defined. Chapter II: An Overview of the Origin of Early Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1 An Introduction of Buddha Figures in the Indian Subcontinent Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1.1 The Buddhist Art of the Pre-Gandhara Period Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1.2 Gandhara and Mathura Buddhist Arts Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1.2.1 The Mathura Buddhist Art Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1.2.2 The Gandhara Buddhist Art Error! Bookmark not defined. ii 2.1.3 The Gupta Buddhist Art Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1.4 The Ajanta Buddhist Caves Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2 An Introduction of the Routes by which Buddha Figures were introduced into China Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2.1 The Western Central Asia Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2.2 The Eastern Central Asia Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3 The Buddha Figures in Xi Yu Regions Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3.1 The Early Characteristics of Buddha Figures in Xi Yu Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3.2 The Merge of Xi Yu Style Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. Chapter III: The Evolution of Early Chinese Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1 The Characteristics of Early Chinese Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.1 Evidence of the Early Buddha Figures in Central Region of China Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.1.1 Documentary Evidence of Early Buddha Figures in the Central Region of China Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.1.2 The Discovery of the Ancient Remains of Early Buddha Figures in China Error! Bookmark not defined. 1) Buddha Figures in the Eastern Han Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. 2) Buddha Figures in the Three Kingdoms Period Error! Bookmark not defined. 3) Buddha Figures of the Jin Dynasties iii Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.2 The Characteristics of Buddha Figures in Early Development Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.2.1 Buddha Figures in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.2.2 Buddha Figures in the Southern and Northern Dynasties Error! Bookmark not defined. 1) Buddha Figures in the Northern Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. A) Buddha Figures in the Northern Wei Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. B) Buddha Figures in the Northern Qi Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. C) Buddha Figures in the Northern Zhou Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. 2) Buddha Figures in the Southern Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.2.3 Buddha Figures in the Sui Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.2.4 Buddha Figures in the Tang Dynasty Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.2 The Evolutionary Stages of Early Chinese Buddha Figure Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.2.1 The Evolutionary Period for Foreign Style Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.2.2 The Evolutionary Period for Mixed Style Error! iv Bookmark not defined. 3.2.3 The Evolutionary Period for Chinese Style Error! Bookmark not defined. Chapter IV: The Main Factors Influenced the Evolution of Early Chinese Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1 External Factors Influenced the Evolution of Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.1 The Attitude of Emperors on the Creation of Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.2 Local Aesthetic Influences on the Evolution of Buddha Figures in Different Periods Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.3 Chinese Local Dressing Influences on the Evolution of Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.4 The Skills and Techniques of Creating Buddha Figures Error! Bookmark not defined.