RITUAL REVISION AND THE INFLUENCE OF EMPIRE: THE POLITICS OF CHANGE IN THE ZUKRU FESTIVAL OF LATE BRONZE EMAR by John Tracy Thames, Jr. A dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Baltimore, Maryland October, 2016 © 2016 John Tracy Thames, Jr. All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT Late Bronze Age Emar was a city in transition. The textual archives discovered at the site span a period when local governance was overtaken by the Hittite Empire, which only gradually developed a presence in Emar throughout the 13th century B.C.E. During this time, cultic specialists in Emar were engaged in a project of committing instructions for performing rituals to writing. Five of those documents record a city-wide ritual called zukru. Four of them are near-identical copies, relating a modest ritual engagement that may have occurred yearly. The fifth reflects an event of an altogether different scale, self- described as a septennial festival, with a level of extravagance unseen elsewhere in Emarite ritual. Studies of such prominent public events as the zukru tell us more than just details of religious practice. Following the work of ritual theorists who have investigated rituals as expressions of politics, this study offers a perspective on the zukru rituals as politically significant engagements not unrelated to the political transitions contemporary with their authorship. Changes in the rituals, such as those attested for the zukru ritual, may reflect alterations in the political landscape. Likewise, understanding their political settings helps us assess the significance of the rituals themselves. This study seeks such a comprehensive understanding of the zukru rituals by interpreting them first as religious phenomena, using comparative methods and ritual theory, and subsequently by reconstructing the political history of 13th-century Emar to reveal the rituals’ implications for Emarite politics and the policies of the Hittite authority based in nearby Karkamiš (Carchemish). ii The results of the study indicate that the festival form of the zukru was heavily influenced by the ritual sensibilities of the Hittite Empire, which took a political interest in Emar around the same time that it became a frontier city of the Assyrian Empire. The expansion of the zukru ritual into an elaborate festival occurred with the backing of the Karkamiš authority as part of a broader program of support for Emar’s local monarchy and cultic service, apparently for the purpose of producing stability in the farthest reaches of the empire. Advisor: P. Kyle McCarter, Jr. Second Reader: Jacob Lauinger Committee Chair: Nicolas Jabko Readers: Daniel Fleming Theodore Lewis Paul Delnero William Rowe iii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Politics of power are shaped in many less than obvious ways, perhaps none so fundamental to human experience than through ritual practice. Yet, the dimensions of ritualization and its dynamic properties are not routinely considered in historical assessments of political change, such as the emergence of empires. Consequently, our historical narratives of political domination in the ancient Near East lack an essential component for understanding fully, on the one hand, the nature of imperial infiltration in provincial territories and, on the other hand, the ways in which ritualization can be a means of negotiating social power. Likewise, a study of ritual is incomplete without as fully as possible taking into account the political, historical, and social factors that would have shaped its form and influenced the impact it would have produced for its participants. A goal of this research is to demonstrate both the profitability of studying ancient rituals for understanding contemporary politics and the advantages of seeking out the socio-political setting of ritual practice in order to best appreciate its significance. The zukru rituals of Late Bronze Age Emar are particularly well suited for an investigation of this sort. They are public events, apparently involving the entire populace of Emar, sponsored by public institutions. And they attest to a shift in their manner of observation that appears to be connected to the dramatic political transitions underway in 13th-century B.C.E. Emar as a result of the increasing presence of Hittite imperial apparatuses in the city. Hence the zukru rituals give us the opportunity to pose questions whose answers may be less accessible in other types of ritual texts. What is the relationship between the variant versions of the zukru ritual and how may we account for its changes? What historical factors would have motivated the production of the zukru iv texts in precisely the form we know them? Given what we know of Emarite government, with its traditionally modest monarchy, how can we explain the exorbitant injection of wealth into the zukru festival—absent in the non-festival version—on the part of the king? And, perhaps most important of all, how does the fact that Emar performed its public zukru while under the imperial umbrella of Hatti and, more immediately, the Hittite viceregal kingdom of Karkamiš (Carchemish) inform us of Hittite/Karkamiš policy concerning Emar, its cult and its governing institutions? Despite the fact that the Hittites conquered Emar already in the last third of the 14th century, their exercise of control in the region was slow and measured, occurring only when politically expedient. One such measure was an active involvement in support of Emar’s cults and the ritual activity associated with them, including the alteration and expansion of the zukru ritual. But why invest in provincial religious service without the possibility of material returns? The question of what the dominant power had to gain from its injection into Emar’s system of religious ritual and precisely how such benefits were achieved will be the driving question of the work that follows. I have had the privilege of completing this work thanks to the support of many individuals, without whom it would never have been possible. My doctoral advisor, Kyle McCarter, played a hands-on role in the project from its very nascence. His continued guidance throughout the process of shaping, reshaping, researching, and writing was always exceptional and forthcoming. I count myself fortunate to have learned from not only his intellect but his example these last years. v Daniel Fleming of New York University agreed early on to consult with me on the project and his involvement grew to be nothing short of crucial. Despite having no obligation to me as a student, he generously gave of his time, spending entire days with me discussing aspects of Emarite society, taking on the role of a mentor. He also read every draft in detail; there is hardly a page in this book that hasn’t been reshaped to respond to his challenges. I am indebted to him for the great amount of time, energy, and kindness he has given me. Jacob Lauinger also donated much of his time to help strengthen the penultimate draft. The level of detail with which he read, especially for the Akkadian text editions, was striking; many an error was expunged thanks to his work. Ted Lewis was foundational to shaping my interest in Late Bronze Age religion and ritual practice; I developed the earliest designs of working on these issues under his guidance. Yoram Cohen met with me during his travels in New England and graciously shared with me his forthcoming work. Discussions with Elizabeth Knott and Dylan Johnson—colleagues in an Emar studies reading group—have been particularly beneficial for ensuring accuracy and depth in my use of academic work on Emar. Paul Michael Kurtz has read a number of documents related to this work and has never failed to offer useful and insightful criticisms. My frequent conversations with Paul Allen have always provided informative perspectives and a much-appreciated sense of fellowship during what was at times an isolating endeavor. And my colleague and friend, Erin Guinn-Villareal, who worked with me via Skype for the majority of my dissertation-writing days, has been a constant source vi of support, motivation, and intellectual inspiration since we began studying together our first years at Johns Hopkins. It is a pleasure to have the opportunity to thank my family for the countless gifts they have given me. Gus and Amos, who were both born during stages of this project, had, far and away, a bigger impact on my work than any other individuals. Their constant (and successful) attempts to pull me away from my desk were always welcome distractions. Learning and playing with them and watching them master so many skills with ease is an inspiration. Finally, I struggle to find the words to express adequately my gratitude to Wendy, my wonderful and patient wife. I started graduate school in the same month we were married and through a decade of successive schools she has stayed by my side as my most ardent supporter. Her sacrifices have been many; it is only with thanks to her that I have had the freedom to pursue this demanding work. I hope that I am able to repay her a small fraction of the grace she has given me as we continue the journey of our lives together. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi LIST OF TABLES xiv PART I: THE CITY OF EMAR AND ITS ZUKRU RITUALS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE CITY OF EMAR 1 Archaeological Excavations at Tell Meskeneh 3 The Archives of Emar 9 Emar’s Scribal Distinctions 16 CHAPTER 2: THE ZUKRU RITUAL: