i ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ARTS, HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES PERSONALITY TRAITS AS INDICATORS OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE FARIS SALIM ALLEHYANI A thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Anglia Ruskin University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Submitted: January 2020 i Acknowledgements Undertaking research and completing a PhD thesis are proud achievements for any academic, largely because it is not an easy process, and there have been many hurdles along my own path to success. For this reason, there are a number of people to whom I am eternally indebted for their support and love, with whom I have shared this stressful but deeply fulfilling journey, and without whom this thesis would never have been completed. First, I would like to thank my supervisors Professor Guido Rings and Dr. Bettina Beinhoff, who have guided me through the most difficult times of the writing process. I left every supervision meeting and class feeling more inspired, more knowledgeable and perhaps most important, more capable of my own abilities. Their patience and support have been unwavering throughout my time as a PhD researcher at Anglia Ruskin University. Moreover, their wisdom and insight have helped to make this project the best it can be. I would like to thank everybody at the school of humanities and social sciences at Anglia Ruskin University who taught me, either formally or informally, and who made my time here so enjoyable and rewarding. Anglia Ruskin University is an inspiring place where I felt nurtured. The encouragement to pursue my own goals and discuss my ideas with peers and tutors has developed my academic mind. Knowledge and a persistence for questioning are skills I will keep with me throughout my career. I would also like to offer my deepest gratitude to my wife Seham, who has supported me unconditionally. There have been moments of great stress and sadness over the past few months in particular, and my wife has guided me through these. Her patience seems to know no bounds. For this and so many other reasons, my love and devotion towards her are unwavering. My parents, Salim and Mariyam, also have been great sources of support. They gave me a thirst for knowledge as well as the persistence and perseverance to strive for the things that I want from life. Without their input throughout the years, I would not have developed the inquisitive mind or i the stubborn determination needed to become a successful academic. I thank you from the bottom of my heart for everything you have done for me. On a more practical note, I acknowledge and give thanks to my uncle Saleh, who provided the financial support necessary for me to follow my dreams and undertake a postgraduate degree. Without your help, this would not have been possible. I am eternally grateful for the opportunities your kindness and benevolence you have provided for me and my family. I know that the rewards will be great. Knowledge is a powerful tool and the most important gift one can receive from life. Thank you so much. Thanks must also go to my friend Mohammad, who sadly passed away of leukaemia before I was able to finish this project. He never got to see me finish my thesis or graduate, as we had both hoped. Still, he is forever in my heart. I am eternally grateful for all the moments I shared with him over the years. His encouragement during my PhD journey was invaluable to me in so many ways. It is with the deepest sadness that I acknowledge the loss of such a dear and wise friend. Rest in Peace. Last but by no means least, I would like to thank my two children, Abdullah and Sattam. You are the future generation of this family and the world. You are the light of my life, and I do everything out of love for you both. I want you to grow up with a role model who shows you that all of your dreams can be achieved and that you have the unconditional support and encouragement needed to do wonderful and great things in your lives. I dedicate my thesis to you both. Thanks must also go to my friends and family, as well as the proof-readers who have indirectly offered me support, guidance, or love throughout my life, allowing me in one way or another to achieve this milestone. ii ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT FACULTY OF ARTS, HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PERSONALITY TRAITS AS INDICATORS OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE FARIS SALIM ALLEHYANI January 2020 This longitudinal PhD thesis investigates the relationship between personality traits and intercultural communication competence among international students in Saudi Arabia. The study also explores whether various demographic and contextual factors affect intercultural communication competence. The work addresses two gaps in the literature relating to (1) the lack of research on the link between personality traits and intercultural communication competence and (2) the paucity of research on intercultural competence in the Saudi educational context. Personality traits can affect how people interact with others and how they behave in new situations. This study uses mixed-methods approach to explore the relationship between personality traits and intercultural communication competence. Participants’ intercultural communication competence was measured using the Assessment of Intercultural Competence and the International Personality Item Pool for personality traits of neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. A total of 95 international students at Umm Al Qura University completed the surveys in April 2017, 53 of whom repeated the assessment in April 2019. Interviews were conducted with 12 students to clarify survey results. The key survey findings included lower neuroticism and higher openness predicted participants’ overall intercultural competence at both assessment points. Other personality traits predicted specific intercultural abilities: agreeableness predicted intercultural awareness, conscientiousness predicted intercultural knowledge and skills and extroversion fostered intercultural attitudes and skills. After two years in Saudi Arabia, extroversion enhanced intercultural knowledge and skills. The surveys also found that participation in an orientation programme did not affect students’ intercultural communication competence at the two time points. Interviews confirmed that intercultural competence depended more on openness than extroversion and orientation programme was insufficiently developed. To improve international students’ intercultural communication competence, educational institutions should develop intercultural training programmes that offer particular support for neurotic, agreeable and conscientious students, as these individuals are least likely to have well-developed intercultural competence. Key words: Personality Traits, Five-Factor Model, Intercultural Communication Competence, Saudi Arabia iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... i Abstract ................................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ vii List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... viii Copyright Declaration ............................................................................................................. x 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Research Questions and Objectives ................................................................................... 2 1.2. Gaps in Knowledge .............................................................................................................. 3 1.3. Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................................................ 5 2. Personality Traits and Intercultural Communication Competence ....................... 9 2.1. Intercultural Communication Competence ...................................................................... 9 2.1.1. Origins and Definitions of Intercultural Communication Competence ...................... 10 2.1.2. Models of Intercultural Communication Competence ............................................... 13 2.1.3. Cosmopolitanism and Intercultural Communication Competence ............................. 15 2.1.4. Interculturality and Intercultural Communication Competence ................................. 17 2.1.5. Education Abroad and Intercultural Communication Competence ............................ 19 2.1.6. Factors Affecting Intercultural Communication Competence .................................... 21 2.1.6.1. Cultural Values ........................................................................................................... 21 2.1.6.2. Culture Shock ............................................................................................................. 23 2.2. Assessment of Intercultural Communication Competence ........................................... 28 2.2.1. Tools for Assessing Intercultural Communication Competence Assessment ............ 28 2.2.2. A Review of the Tools for Assessing Intercultural