The Emergence of Kurdism with Special Reference to the Three Kurdish Emirates within the Ottoman Empire, 1800-1850 Submitted by Sabah Abdullah Ghalib to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Arabic and Islamic Studies in October 2011 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: Table of Contents Acknowledgements vii Note on Transliteration and Translation viii List of Abbreviations ix Abstract x Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 The Scope and Purpose of the Study 1 1.2 Definitions and classifications 3 1.3 The theoretical context 9 1.4 The problem of Modernity 9 1.5 Modernist theories and Kurdism 11 1.6 Marxist theories of nationalism: Class and Kurdish nationalism 13 1.7 Historical Narratives 14 1.8 The Scope of this Study 18 1.9 The Focus of this Discussion 20 1.10 Précis of Issues discussed in each chapter 21 1.11 A note on sources 24 Chapter Two: Kurdish Tribes and their Emirates; the Socio-Political Structure 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Kurdish Dynasties and their States before the Ottomans and 26 Safavids 2.3 The beginning of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires in Kurdistan 29 2.4 The Boundaries between the Ottoman and Persian Empires 32 2.5 The Ottoman-Kurdish Agreement 35 2.6 The Impact of the Ottoman-Kurdish Agreement on the Kurds 37 2.7 The Ottoman administration in Kurdistan 40 2.8 Kurdish Tribal Society 41 2.9 Tribes under the Empires 41 2.10 The Kurdish tribal organization 43 2.11 The Xan –Agha 45 - ii - 2.12 Influence of an Agha through his Diwaxan 46 2.13 Kurdish emirate system 47 2.14 The role of the Mirs 49 2.15 The Kurdish Emirates before the nineteenth century 50 2.16 The Soran Emirate before 1800 52 2.17 The Botan Emirate before 1800 53 2.18 The Baban Emirate before 1800 55 2.19 Conclusion 59 Chapter Three: The Role of Kurdish Language and Literature in identity 62 formation before the 19th century 3.1 Aims and main themes 62 3.2 Importance of the Oral Tradition 65 3.3 Kurdish Identity in Dimdim 66 3.4 Historical Background in reference to the Dimdim 67 3.5 Sources for Dimdim Variations of Dimdim 67 3.6 Language, consciousness and identity: the religious context 70 3.7 The Emergence of Kurdish literature as a vehicle for ‘Kurdism’ 72 3.8 The Importance of Medrese in Promoting Kurdish Identity 73 3.9 Promotion of Kurdish Language and Literature 74 3.10 Written Literature 74 3.11 Sharafnama and Mem û Zîn 74 3.12 Kurdish Historical identity in Sharafnama 75 3.13 Kurds in Sharafnama 77 3.14 Kurdistan in Sharafnama 78 3.15 The emergence of Kurdism in Kurdish poetry before Xani 79 3.16 Melayê Cizîrî (1567–1640) 79 3.17 Establishing the project of a Kurdish literature: Mem û Zîn, by 81 Ehmedê Xanî (1650–1707): The Kurdish National Epic 3.18 Background of the Poet 83 3.19 Major elements of Kurdish identity in Mem û Zîn 87 3.20 Xanî’s Use of Mem û Zîn to express Kurdish Sentiment 93 3.21 Poets after Xanî 98 - iii - 3.22 Conclusion 100 Chapter Four: The Soran Emirate and its contribution to Kurdism 103 4.1 Introduction 103 4.2 A short historical background of Rewanduz (Soran) and 104 Muhammad Pasha 4.3 Effects of a Strong Army 107 4.4 Some other important aspects of Soran Emirate 111 4.5 Effects of Expansion in Baghdad 113 4.6 Subjugation to Muhammad Pasha’s Rule 113 4.7 Soran Emirate as Focal Point of Kurdistan 116 4.8 The role of medreses [schools] 116 4.9 Hajî Qadirî Koyî (1815–1897) 118 4.10 European and regional powers 132 4.11 British Concerns in the Region 133 4.12 The Effects of the Soran Emirate’s Expansion on Persia 136 4.13 Persia’s Role in the Downfall of the Soran Emirate 137 4.14 The Effect of Muhammad Ali of Egypt and his campaigns 139 4.15 Regional Powers action to eliminate the Soran Emirate 139 4.16 Reactions of the European Powers 141 4.17 The Soran Emirate’s Contribution to Kurdism 145 4.18 Conclusion 147 Chapter Five: The Botan Emirate and the Development of Kurdism in the 150 time of Bedirkhan 5.1 The rise to power of Bedirkhan Beg 150 5.2 Administration of Botan under Bedirkhan Beg 157 5.3 Bedirkhan, Botan and the Economy 159 5.4 Bedirkhan Pasha: Modernizer of the Army 160 5.5 Consolidation against the Ottomans 163 5.6 Obstacles 165 5.7 The Christian-Nestorians and other Christian groups in Kurdistan 165 5.8 Consequences of British Influence 168 - iv - 5.9 Other Powers and Bedirkhan of the Botan Emirate 172 5.10 The Ottoman attack against Bedirkhan and his downfall 175 5.11 More elements of Bedirkhan’s Kurdism 178 5.12 Kurdism in Lawik following the Botan Emirate 180 5.13 Legacy of Bedirkhan 184 5.14 Conclusion 186 Chapter Six: The Development of Kurdism in the Baban Emirate 1800-1850 189 6.1 Introduction 189 6.2 Establishing a new Capital: From Qeĺa Çolan to Silêmanî 191 6.3 Silêmanî: the new capital 192 6.4 Role of Silêman Pasha and the expansion of Baban 194 6.5 Abdurrahman Pasha and his Political Plan 195 6.6 Development of the Military under Abdurrahman 196 6.7 Abdulrahman Pasha’s Will and His Kurdism 200 6.8 After Abdulrahman Pasha: Mahmud Pasha’s Struggle for 202 Alignment with Regional Powers 6.9 Silêman’s Ascendancy to Authority 203 6.10 The Appointment of Abdulrahman Pasha’s Successor 204 6.11 The Effect of the Appointment of Said Bey as Pasha of Baghdad: 204 son of Sulaiman Pasha “The Great” 6.12 The Effect of Baban’s Geographical Position on its Political Status 205 6.13 Kurdish Relations with the Dominant Empires 206 6.14 Ahmad Pasha of Baban (1838–1844) 207 6.15 Skirmishes at the frontier that affected the Baban Emirate 208 6.16 Conflict over the Frontiers 209 6.17 Najib Pasha of Baghdad (1842–1847) 210 6.18 The Reinstatement of Mahmud as Pasha of Silêmanî 210 6.19 Kurdism in Literature and Language under the Baban Emirates 212 6.20 Beyti Abdulrahman Pashai Baban-The ballad of Abdullah Pasha of 213 Baban 6.21 Mawlana Khalidi Naqishbandî Kurdî 216 6.22 Nalî and other Baban poets 221 - v - 6.23 Nali 221 6.24 Salim 227 6.25 Kurdi 231 6.26 Sheikh Reza 232 6.27 Conclusion 234 Chapter Seven: Conclusions 238 Appendices 252 Appendix A 252 Appendix B 254 Appendix C 259 Appendix D 261 Appendix E 270 Appendix F 271 Appendix G 273 Appendix H 276 Appendix I 281 Glossary 286 Bibliography 281 - vi - Acknowledgments I am grateful to all who have helped and advised me during my research, but take responsibility for any mistakes and errors in this thesis. Professor Christine Allison, supervised this study, and has offered valuable feedback, constructive criticism and support. Alison Ohta from the Royal Asiatic Society has advised and supported me throughout my study. Dr Kemal Mirawdelî, Dr Said Shams and Laura Miller have provided valuable advice and encouragement. I am particularly grateful for many Kurdish intellectuals and friends who supported me and sent me rich research materials, especially the late Professor Ma’ruf Xeznedar, Feryad Fazil, Abdullah Zengene, Dr Hussein Habash, Dr Diĺşad Ali, Anwer Sultani, Muhammad Hama Baqî, Aso Aziz, Abdulhamid Huseinî, and Robert Jarman, my thanks also to Dr Zibiah Alfred who has provided me with a lot of advice and suggestions. I also wish to thank and acknowledge the British Library, the National Archive, the School of Oriental and African Studies, Senate House, Lambeth Palace Library and The Welcome Library, and their staff for their help. Thanks also to senior officer at Graduate Research School at the University of Exeter, in particular Sarmishtha Ghosh I wish to acknowledge the loving encouragement of my late father Ghalib Agha Abdullah Agha and my late mother Su’ad Muhedin who supported me to travel along a path of education and inspired me to study Kurdish politics and history. It was my late father who introduced me to the writing of famous Kurdish historians Sharafkhan Bitlisi, and Muhammad Ami Zaki and also he introduced me to Ottoman historians such as Evliya Celebi and Ahmed Cevdet Pasha and my late mother who inspired my love of Kurdish folktales. Throughout my work I have also been inspired by Kurdish people all over the world. Thanks to all Kurdish friends, and especially to Abdullah Peşêw, Adnan Muftî, Dr Barham Salih, Dr Salah Aziz and Hajî Hajî Ibrihim who have been patiently waiting for the birth of this thesis and who encouraged me to pursue this study. Finally, and most importantly of all, I would like to thank my wife, Bêxaĺ and our children Barzî and Ajên for their support. I dedicate this work to them. - vii - Note on Transliteration and Translation One of the difficulties faced writing in English is, challenging original words spelled in Arabic script.