FIRST AMENDMENT RELIGION AND EXPRESSION CONTENTS Page Religion ....................................................................................................................................... 969 An Overview ........................................................................................................................ 969 Scholarly Commentary ................................................................................................ 970 Court Tests Applied to Legislation Affecting Religion ............................................. 972 Government Neutrality in Religious Disputes .......................................................... 974 Establishment of Religion .................................................................................................. 977 Financial Assistance to Church-Related Institutions ............................................... 977 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Released Time ....... 991 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Prayers and Bible Reading ..................................................................................................................... 993 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Curriculum Re- striction ..................................................................................................................... 996 Access of Religious Groups to School Property ......................................................... 997 Tax Exemptions of Religious Property ...................................................................... 997 Exemption of Religious Organizations from Generally Applicable Laws ............... 999 Sunday Closing Laws .................................................................................................. 999 Conscientious Objection .............................................................................................. 1000 Regulation of Religious Solicitation ........................................................................... 1001 Religion in Governmental Observances ..................................................................... 1002 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................................... 1004 Free Exercise of Religion ................................................................................................... 1005 The Belief-Conduct Distinction .................................................................................. 1007 The Mormon Cases ...................................................................................................... 1009 The Jehovah's Witnesses Cases ................................................................................. 1010 Free Exercise Exemption from General Governmental Requirements ................... 1011 Religious Test Oaths ................................................................................................... 1019 Religious Disqualification ........................................................................................... 1019 Freedom of ExpressionÐSpeech and Press ............................................................................. 1020 Adoption and Common Law Background ......................................................................... 1020 Freedom of Expression: The Philosophical Basis ............................................................. 1025 Freedom of Expression: Is There a Difference Between Speech and Press ................... 1026 The Doctrine of Prior Restraint ......................................................................................... 1029 Injunctions and the Press in Fair Trial Cases .......................................................... 1031 Obscenity and Prior Restraint ................................................................................... 1033 Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests ......................... 1034 Clear and Present Danger .......................................................................................... 1036 The Adoption of Clear and Present Danger .............................................................. 1038 Contempt of Court and Clear and Present Danger .................................................. 1040 Clear and Present Danger Revised: Dennis .............................................................. 1042 Balancing ..................................................................................................................... 1044 The ``Absolutist'' View of the First Amendment, with a Note on ``Preferred Posi- tion'' ........................................................................................................................... 1048 Of Other Tests and Standards: Vagueness, Overbreadth, Least Restrictive Means, and Others .................................................................................................. 1050 965 966 Freedom of ExpressionÐSpeech and PressÐContinued Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other TestsÐContinued Is There a Present Test? ............................................................................................. 1051 Freedom of Belief ................................................................................................................ 1053 Flag Salute Cases ........................................................................................................ 1053 Imposition of Consequences for Holding Certain Beliefs ......................................... 1054 Right of Association ............................................................................................................ 1056 Political Association .................................................................................................... 1061 Conflict Between Organization and Members .......................................................... 1064 Maintenance of National Security and the First Amendment ....................................... 1066 Punishment of Advocacy ............................................................................................. 1067 Compelled Registration of Communist Party ........................................................... 1069 Punishment for Membership in an Organization Which Engages in Proscribed Advocacy ................................................................................................................... 1070 Disabilities Attaching to Membership in Proscribed Organizations ....................... 1071 Employment Restrictions and Loyalty Oaths ........................................................... 1073 Legislative Investigations and the First Amendment .............................................. 1078 Interference With War Effort ..................................................................................... 1079 Suppression of Communist Propaganda in the Mails .............................................. 1080 Exclusion of Certain Aliens as a First Amendment Problem .................................. 1080 Particular Government Regulations Which Restrict Expression ................................... 1081 Government as Employer: Political Activities .......................................................... 1081 Government as Employer: Free Expression Generally ............................................ 1084 Government as Educator ............................................................................................ 1090 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Elections ................................. 1094 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Lobbying ................................. 1101 Government as Regulator of Labor Relations ........................................................... 1102 Government as Investigator: Journalist's Privilege ................................................. 1102 Government and the Conduct of Trials ..................................................................... 1105 Government as Administrator of Prisons .................................................................. 1108 Government and Power of the Purse ......................................................................... 1112 Governmental Regulation of Communications Industries .............................................. 1113 Commercial Speech ..................................................................................................... 1113 Taxation ....................................................................................................................... 1119 Labor Relations ........................................................................................................... 1121 Antitrust Laws ............................................................................................................ 1122 Radio and Television ................................................................................................... 1123 Governmentally Compelled Right of Reply to Newspapers ..................................... 1127 Government Restraint of Content of Expression ............................................................. 1127 Seditious Speech and Seditious Libel ........................................................................ 1131 Fighting Words and Other Threats to the Peace ...................................................... 1133 Group Libel, Hate Speech ..........................................................................................