Cape Town at War: The City, lived Experiences and Loyalties, 1914-1919 Sarah-Jane Walton A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Historical Studies. Supervisor: Vivian Bickford-Smith University of Cape Town Faculty of Humanities University of Cape Town February 2020 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town i Compulsory Declaration This work has not been previously submitted in whole, or in part, for the award of any degree. It is my own work. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this dissertation from the work, or works, of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Sarah-Jane Walton Date: 07 February 2020 ii Abstract This thesis explores ways in which the First World War affected Cape Town. It addresses the absence of research on urban histories in South Africa and non-European urban histories of the war. It tells of the history in Cape Town and the history of Cape Town during the war. By drawing on a variety of primary sources – government and city records, organisational archives, print media - it demonstrates some of the infrastructural, economic and social consequences of the war on the city. The thesis is structured in three main parts. The first considers the city on the advent of the war and Capetonians’ responses to its declaration. This related to the Anglo-Boer War and the 1910 formation of Union, and Cape Town’s particular history of Anglicisation. It also explores how war changed the experience of daily life, imbuing the city with war-related sights, sounds and symbols. The second part of the thesis emphasises that the war was a period of considerable infrastructural and demographic change. The city’s work-force, too was affected by the war, whilst a rise in living-expenses, and a wartime spread of socialist ideas, led to intensified strike action. This was notable for increased cross-racial co-operation, as well as the marked presence of semi- and unskilled workers organising en-mass for the first time. The third part of the thesis speaks to subjective depictions of Cape Town. It considers three main discourses about the city – ‘slum city,’ ‘sin city’ and ‘destination city’ - indicating the co-existence of multiple and sometimes contrasting representations of wartime Cape Town. Lastly, the war was a period of heightened identifications with Britain, which cut across race, gender and class lines. Nevertheless wartime patriotism was inconsistently sustained, with certain events fuelling feelings of loyalty towards Empire and animosity towards those deemed as ‘disloyal.’ Overall it is concluded that although the war has faded in Cape Town’s popular memory, it was important to how many Capetonians identified themselves. Moreover it was a significant catalyst for change, informing debates and subsequent policies about health, segregation and the future of South African cities. iii Acknowledgements Many people have been important to the creation and completion of this thesis. Firstly, to my supervisor, Vivian Bickford-Smith: I am truly grateful for your time, expertise, encouragement and mentorship over the last number of years. It has meant much more to me than the completion of this PhD, so thank you. Thank you to the National Research Foundation (NRF) for its financial support of my work, as well as the University of Cape Town, which funded me through its Doctoral Package Programme. Ultimately, however, the views expressed in this thesis are my own. To the archivists at Special Collections and Government Publications, UCT, thank you for your patience and all the heavy-lifting. Similarly, I am grateful to the staff at the Western Cape Archives for their help and suggestions. Thank you to the Department of Historical Studies, and particularly Colleen Petersen and Alicia Ernstzen, who always seem serene amongst it all. I am also grateful to Adam Mendelsohn for his time and input, and for sharing his research on Germans in Cape Town – such kindness is very much appreciated. Thanks both to Sue Townsend, for lending me the St Cyprian’s magazines, and to Harriet Clift of the City of Cape Town for access to the City’s press clippings. Melanie Attwell, thank you for sharing part of this journey with me. Your friendship has been such a lovely surprise. You are also an excellent travel companion - Rome was delightful. Soon you will be writing your acknowledgements too! Rebecca Swartz, I am so grateful for your friendship, mentorship and the support that you have provided over the last number of years. Sharing an office with you was an absolute blast. It was also a safe, warm space during a topsy-turvy time. To the rest of the History Crowd – Boyd, Debbie, Chloe and Tammy – you are truly fabulous, and I have so much fondness and respect for you all. To my team of proof-readers: Poppa, Mom, Dad, Candy and Jo – I am very grateful to all of you for donning your grammar hats and taking the time to read through my work. It is likely that you will remain amongst a select few to do so! To my friends and family (or rather, families) – you know who you are. I am so appreciative of you all, I couldn’t ask for a better support system. Ryan, this has been your journey too. Thank you for your support and for making this PhD possible. Thank you for sharing the ups and downs, and for showing me so many new and wonderful things. iv Dedicated to Roger and Betty Walton (01.06.1934 – 06.07.2018) v Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: City at War ............................................................................................. 28 Chapter Two: Infrastructure ......................................................................................... 28 Chapter Three: Work .................................................................................................... 89 Chapter Four: Strikes ................................................................................................. 115 Chapter Five: Slum City ............................................................................................ 140 Chapter Six: Sin City ................................................................................................. 163 Chapter Seven: Destination City ................................................................................ 184 Chapter Eight: Loyalty and the City .......................................................................... 204 Conclusion: On Remembrance .................................................................................. 230 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 246 vi Tables Table 1: Population of Cape Town, according to Census categories of 1911 ............................ 1 Table 2: Racial Breakdown of City Centre per ward (1921) ................................................... 19 Table 3: Racial breakdown for the different Wards of Cape Town (1911) .............................. 24 Table 4: Breakdown of Cape Town’s White population according to birthplace .................... 30 Table 5: Population Increase by race and gender, 1911- 1921 ................................................. 33 Table 6: Refuse and sanitary removals, 1916-1917 ................................................................. 34 Table 7: Population of Ndabeni, 1911- September 1918 ......................................................... 36 Table 8: Average rents across the Cape Peninsula, 1910 - August 1919 ................................. 38 Table 9: Infant mortality per ward in Cape Town, as broken down by race, 1914-1919 ......... 86 Table 10: Men of Military Age (18-49 years), 1911 ................................................................ 92 Table 11: Birthplaces for Capetonians 1911 and 1921 ............................................................ 96 Table 12: Estimated cost of living for a single white woman, 1917 ...................................... 107 Graphs Graph 1: Population Increase of Cape Town and Suburbs by race, 1911-1921....................... 33 Graph 2: Racial comparison of occupants per room per ward 1921 ........................................ 87 Graph 3: Arrests for Prostitution and Vagrancy ..................................................................... 110 Graph 4: Average Infant Mortality for Woodstock and Salt River, 1914-1919 .................... 122 Graph 5: Average Infant Mortality for Maitland, 1914-1919 ................................................ 122 Graph 6: Average Infant Mortality for Rondebosch, 1914-1919 ........................................... 123 Graph 7: Average Infant Mortality for East Central and Castle, 1914-1919 ......................... 123 Graph 8: Average Infant Mortality for Harbour, 1914-1919 .................................................. 124 Graph 9: Average Infant Mortality for Wards 1-7, 1911-1920 ............................................. 125 Graph 10: Arrests for drunkenness and riotous behaviour, 1914-1920 ................................. 165 Graph 11: