UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Sacred and Contested Landscapes: Dynamics of Natural Resource Management by Akha People In Xishuangbanna, Southwest China A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology by Jianhua Wang August 2013 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Eugene N. Anderson, Chairperson Dr. David B. Kronenfeld Dr. David A. Biggs Copyright by Jianhua Wang 2013 The Dissertation of Jianhua Wang is approved: Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside Acknowledgement First of all, I would like to thank the Department of Anthropology, University of California at Riverside (UCR) for accepting me as a PhD student, and the Graduate Division of UCR for granting me the Dean’s Fellowship Award (2002-2006), without which I could not have started this study at the first place. My preliminary fieldwork was funded by the Humanities Graduate Student Research Grant, UCR (2004), and my main one-year fieldwork was funded by the Pacific Rim Research Grant, University of California (2005-2006). My supplementary fieldwork was supported by various grants including the Subaltern-Popular Dissertation Research Award, University of California at Santa Barbara (2006-2007), the Graduate Dean’s Dissertation Research Grant of UCR (2007-2008), and the Sustainable Mekong Research Network (Sumernet) Fellowship, the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI)-Asia (2008-2009). Dissertation writing was supported by both the Sumernet Fellowship and the Visiting Scholar Fellowship at the Regional Center for Social Sciences and Sustainable Development (RCSD), Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University (CMU) (2009-2010). I also benefited greatly as a manager of the project on “Documentation of Akha Cultural Traditions” funded by the U.S. Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation (AFCP), the U.S. Department of State (2010-2012). My sponsors in China were Dr. Yang Yongping, then deputy director of Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB) and Dr. Chen Jin, director of Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden (XTBG), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). My studies, dissertation research and writing were not possible without all of this institutional and financial support. iv Second, I would like to give my wholehearted thanks to my advisor Dr. Eugene N. Anderson, a great mentor and the most knowledgeable person I have ever happened to know in my life. His great mentorship with unbelievable knowledge about almost everything has guided me to sail without becoming lost in the academic ocean in general and anthropological sea in particular. His constant support, encouragement, and endless patience to me, a slower learning student, have helped me to survive in the unusually long journey of my PhD study. My sincere thanks also go the other members of my dissertation committee, Dr. David B. Kronenfeld and Dr. David A. Biggs, without whose generous supports and guidance, I could not accomplish my studies. My thanks also go to Dr. Sally Ness, an ex-member of my dissertation committee but who could not serve on it at the end because of her sabbatical leave out of the country. I benefited much from her seminar on Anthropology of Landscape. Other mentors who have guided me to grow in academic world include, but are not limited to, Prof. Pei Shengji and Dr. Xu Jianchu (both were advisors of Master studies in Botany at KIB-CAS who led me to enter the field of ethnobotany, which paved a path for me to enter into anthropology eventually), Prof. Li Yanhui (who taught me botanic taxonomy), Dr. Leo Alting von Geusau (the founder and ex-director of the Southeast Asian Mountain Peoples’ Culture, Development and Education Foundation, from which the Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association and the Association for Akha Education and Culture in Thailand developed later, who introduced me to the broad network of Akha people particularly knowledgeable elders in Mengkong River region), Dr. Louis Lebel (then director of the Unit for Social and Environmental Research (USER), CMU, who mentored me when I was the Sumernet fellow), Dr. v Chayan Vaddhanaphuti (and Dr. Yos Santasombat (the former is director of RCSD and the latter is professor of anthropology at CMU, both were mentors of me when I was a visiting scholar at RCSD, CMU), Dr. Timmi and Dr. Maruja Salas Tillmann (an anthropologist couple who shared much their wide anthropological knowledge from other parts of the world and supported me as good colleagues and close friends since 1996), Dr. David Feingold and Dr. Heather Peters (another anthropological couple who have been supportive in various ways). I would like to give my cordial thanks to all these persons, without whose endless support, sharing, guidance, and encouragement, I could not complete my PhD studies and become a successful anthropologist. The next group to whom I would like to give my devotional respects and cordial thanks are my Akha cultural teachers including, but are not limited to, Aqbawr Kandzer Ghoeqlanqguq, Aqbawr Jargaw Ghoeqlanqguq, Ardov Arhae Ghoeqlanqguq, Aqpiq Xaevdeer Ghoeqlanqma, Aqbawr Liqcaq Jeirbeeqguq, Aqpiq Parpaq Ghoeqlanqma, Aqbawr Tutsaq Pyawqsaerguq, Aqbawr Heeqpyawq Aqghawr(Jawrban)guq, Aqghawr Panrlov Nyawrbyeivqguq, Aqcan Lawqpir Pyawqsearguq, Aqbawr Govlawq Meeqbanguq, Aqbawr Jarghuq Byanlaeqguq, Ardov Aqzir Jeirbeeqguq (from China); Aqbawrhaq Saeduqguq, Aqbawrbaeq Saeduqguq, Pirma Arkev Ceimeeqguq, Ardov Kawqtsaq Lartavguq, Ardov Lawqgaw Manqpovguq (from Thailand); Ardov Jaqtee Ceimeeqguq (from Myanmar); Boermawq Lansar Danyirguq, Boermawq Beeqganr Lawqyanqguq (from Laos). Most historical, cultural, and ecological knowledge documented here were taught by these great teachers, whose mentorship has guided me to become an Akha student in the full sense. vi I also would like to thank my colleagues and friends who have helped in various ways. Though I cannot list all of their names, I still would like to mention Dr. Prasert Trankansuphakon (director of the Indigenous Knowledge and People, Chiang Mai, Thailand), Mr. Sakda Saemi (director of the Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association), and Mr. Aju Jupoh (ex-director of the Association for Akha Education and Culture in Thailand) who had provided me with much collaboration and convenience when I was working and living in Chiang Mai, Thailand in the past six years. My sincere thanks also go to my Hani-Akha colleagues and friends, such as Mr. Huang Rongsheng who companioned me to do my fieldwork in Laos and Myanmar; Mr. Li Er who provided me some convenient transportations at the beginning of my fieldwork in China; Dr. Bai Yongfang and Mr. Pu Yaqiang who have provided me with much second hand data on the Hani-Akha history and culture; Mr. Maerlanq Ghoeqlanqguq who has studied Akha culture and traditional knowledge together with me since 1997; Mr. Zhang Xiaoming who helped me make all the maps used in the dissertation; Mr. Li Jie who provided me information on the natural reserves in Xishuangbanna; Mr. Cirtuq Byevtseirguq, Mr. Cirjoe Byevtseirguq, and Mr. Zalanq Mazevguq who arranged my fieldtrip to Akha communities in Eastern Shan State of Myanmar safe and convenient. Special thanks go to a special colleague and friend Mr. Micah Morton who has been very supportive by providing references I need. Mr. Tao Guoda and Mr. Wang Hong helped me to identify all the plants. I am also thankful to all of my colleagues and friends not listed here due to space limits, but always in my heart and I remember your support and encouragement all the way coming along. Without generous help from these colleagues and friends, I could not complete my dissertation. vii I also own huge debts to the leaders and all villagers of my two major research sites in China, Mengsong and Baka, as well as my extended research site in Thailand, Doi Chang. I would like particularly thank Mr. Nyirer Pyawqsaerguq (the head of Baka village), Mr. Dzerguq Ghoeqlanqguq (the head of Hongqi village), Mr. Ketuq Ghoeqlanqguq (the head of Hongxing village), Mr. Xovsav Jeirbeeqguq (the accountant officer of Mengsong Administrative Village—MAV), Mr. Li Chengdong (then the official head of MAV), Mr. Laoer Dancanguq (the official head of MAV after Mr. Li), and Mr. He Yongneng (the official head of MAV after Mr. Laoer), Mr. Somsak Phisailert (the official head of Doi Chang village); all of them facilitated the smooth process of my fieldwork. Then last, but not least, I own my heartfelt thanks to my wife Miju, son Eugene, daughter Mulan, parents and extended families both in China and Thailand, without whose love, understanding, support, patience, and encouragement, I could not endure all the challenges and overcome all the difficulties in the long journey of accomplishing my studies and dissertation. viii For Miju, Eugene, Mulan, Aqma Aqda, and my extended families For the Hani Nationality and the Akha People ix ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Sacred and Contested Landscapes: Dynamics of Natural Resource Management by Akha People In Xishuangbanna, Southwest China by Jianhua Wang Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in Anthropology University of California, Riverside, August 2013 Dr. Eugene N. Anderson, Chairperson Through careful analyses of rich oral texts of their migratory history, genealogies and rituals, as well as using historical records in Chinese, archaeological evidence, and ethnographic data, this study traces the history of Akha people, a Tibeto-Burman speaking group in Zomia, back to their original homeland