The discursive (re)construction of national identity in Cyprus and England with special reference to history textbooks: a comparative study Klerides L. Eleftherios Institute ofEducation, University ofLondon Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment ofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy February 2008 I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made, the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own . Eleftherios L. Klerides Word count (exclusive ofappendix and bibliography): 98139 words 11 Abstract This thesis is an analysis of national identity construction in Cyprus and England in two historical times: the period following the Greek and Turkish military offensives in Cyprus (1974-93), and the period ofthe Conservative administration in Britain (1979-97). It examines identity formations in history textbooks across the two settings and addresses their relationship with intellectual and political constructs ofidentity. These periods were moments of a metamorphosis of identity in both settings. This identity reconstruction was firstly materialised in the signifying practices ofpoliticians and intellectuals. As an effect ofthe emergence ofnew nationalist discourses in the political and intellectual fields was the production of new history textbooks, making it possible for the national image to be also reconstituted in and through them. New identities were articulated in the field of school history but their redefinition varied within and across the two settings. Variations within each setting were primarily determined by the particular features of the social domain in which the construction of identity took place. Across the settings, they were mainly shaped by different genres of school history writing. Despite their differences, the new identities across the two cultural settings and social fields shared certain similar motifs - fragmentation, hybridity and ambivalence. It is therefore suggested that the making of identity in history textbooks cannot be understood by focusing solely on textbooks. Knowledge ofthe specificities ofthe historical, the intellectual, the political and the educational layers of the context in which they are embedded as well as the complex linkages between identifications articulated in these layers, is required. Based on this finding, this thesis attempts to formulate a theoretical model that enhances the understanding ofhow national identity is produced, sustained, transformed and dismantled discursively in history textbooks. 111 Table of contents Acknowledgements. ............................................... VI Declaration form. ................................................. Vll CHAPTER ONE - Introduction 1.1 Main theme and comparative rationale. ............................. 1 1.2 Thesis arguments and chapter structure . 4 CHAPTER TWO - Theories and concepts: a discursive approach to the construction of national identity 2.1 Introduction. .................................................. 7 2.2 National identity in the comparative education canon. ................. 8 2.3 New perspectives on national identity. ............................. 11 2.4 Implications for comparative educational research. .................... 19 2.5 Discourse as a theoretical and methodological bridge. 23 2.6 Conclusion. ................................................... 29 CHAPTER THREE - Contexts and discourses: a genealogy of national identity in Cyprus and England 3.1 Introduction................................................. 35 3.2.1 The ethnic and irredentist construct ofGreek identity. 36 3.2.2 The civic and territorial configuration ofCypriot identity. 42 3.3.1 The civic and imperial formation ofBritish identity. 45 3.3.2 The ethnic and imperial construct ofEnglish identity. 51 3.4 Conclusion.................................................. 56 CHAPTER FOUR - New discourses ofnational identity in Cyprus and England: the perspective ofpoliticians and intellectuals 4.1 Introduction................................................. 63 4.2 Discursive constructs ofnational identity in post-I974 Cyprus. 64 4.2.1 The projection of a Cypriot people. .............................. 65 4.2.2 The making ofa common present and future: 'the Cyprus Problem' . 69 4.2.3 The construction of a common national past. ....................... 74 4.3 Discursive constructs ofnational identity in post-imperial England. 79 4.3.1 The construction ofnational 'others': a nation under threat. 80 4.3.2 The making of a common culture and character. .................... 84 4.3.3 The constitution ofa common present and future: a nation in decline. 87 4.3.4 The narration ofcommon national pastes) . 89 4.4 Concluding comparative remarks. ................................ 93 IV CHAPTER FIVE - Contexts of reception: education, school history and national identity in Cyprus and England 5.1 Introduction................................................. 104 5.2.1 An education for national and imperial identification and superiority. 105 5.2.2 The traditional history and the genre oftraditional history textbook. 106 5.2.3 The new history and the genre ofnew history textbook. 109 5.2.4 An education for cultural pluralism and anti-racism. 112 5.2.5 The construction ofnational identity in school histories. 115 5.3.1 An education for national belongingness and cultural preservation. 128 5.3.2 The traditional history and the genre oftraditional history textbook. 129 5.3.3 The construction ofnational identity in school histories. 133 5.4 Conclusion.................................................. 143 CHAPTER SIX - Discursive constructs of national identity in Cyprus: the perspective of history textbooks 6.1 Introduction , . 152 6.2 The communicative purposes ofhistory teaching and writing. 152 6.3 The narrative strand ofheteronomy and autonomy. 153 6.4 The narrative strand ofChristianity. ............................... 173 6.5 The narrative strand ofHellenism .................................. 183 6.6 Conclusion. ................................................... 194 CHAPTER SEVEN - Discursive constructs of national identity in England: the perspective of history textbooks 7.1 Introduction. .................................................. 200 7.2 The aims and purposes ofhistory teaching and writing. 200 7.3 The origins ofthe English nation. ................................. 201 7.4 The narrative strand ofconstitutional development. .. 203 7.5 The narrative strand ofexpansionism. .............................. 212 7.6 The narrative strand ofsociety, economy and culture. 228 7.7 Conclusion. ................................................... 243 CHAPTER EIGHT - Conclusion 8.1 Thesis summary: the course ofthe argument. ................. .. 248 8.2 Contrasting conceptions ofnational identity: a paradox. 258 8.3 The construction ofnational identity revisited. 259 8.4 Suggestions for future research. ................................... 263 8.5 Reflections on the thesis. ...................... .. 265 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ............................................... 273 APPENDIX ONE. ................................................ 293 v List oftables Table One Lexicalisation ofthe main actors in periods ofheteronomy . 158 Table Two Lexicalisation ofthe main actors and their acts in the sub-strand of expansion within the British Isles. 214 Table Three The representation ofthe main actors in the sub-strand ofimperial expansion ............................................... 222 Table Four Patterns ofwording those who benefited from industrialism and those who did not. 238 Table Five Assumptions on the nature ofnational identities. 258 VI Acknowledgements This thesis has been the outcome of a long and painstaking effort that would not have been completed without the generous and kind assistance and contributions I was fortunate to receive by various individuals and institutions. I am indebted to all ofthem and I would like to thank them for their presence while writing this thesis. First of all, I would like to thank the A.G. Leventis Foundation and the Tyrimou fund for funding my research project at its various stages. Without their financial support undertaking and finalising this project would not have been feasible or sustainable. Special thanks are owed to Demetris Charalambous for inspiring me to pursue a PhD in the first place and for his consistent support and care throughout the years. Also, this thesis has benefited greatly from the various discussions I have had with many people from the Institute of Education and beyond and I would like to thank them here. They are too many to name, but I would like to include Jan Blommaert, David Crook, Eva Gamarnikow, Katerina Daniil, Stavros Moutsios, Yiannis Papadakis, Sophia Diamantopoulou, Costas Voros, Panayiotis Persianis and Kaori Okumoto. Above all, I am grateful to my supervisors, Bob Cowen and Bob Ferguson, for their constant guidance, advice, encouragement, enthusiasm and professionalism. I was lucky to have them as my supervisors, as they made this journey an intellectual sustenance, challenge and growth. Special thanks to Bob Cowen who undertook the biggest burden of supervision and who did not spare time whenever I needed him. Most importantly, I am indebted to my parents for their loving patience and support both emotionally and financially. I also wish to acknowledge the hospitality of the Chrysostomou family with whom I stayed throughout my studies in London. Last but not least, I would like to thank my fiancee, Theophania Chavatzia, for her strong commitment and