Hollywood in Norway – Distribution and Repertoire Caroline Strutz Skei Master Thesis in Media Studies Universitetet i Oslo Institutt for medier og kommunikasjon 10.12.2010 Abstract Grounded in the question of who influences repertoire decisions and to what extent, this thesis presents a predominately empirical analysis of how films are brought to the Norwegian cinema screens. With the underlying goal of accounting for why and how Hollywood‟s movies are able to retain their dominant position in the country, it focuses on the distributors as the decisive link between producers and exhibitors. The starting point is an exploration of film‟s historical commercial developments which present Hollywood‟s film industry and the conditions of the Norwegian market. Through a detailed analysis of current selection of movies at the cinemas, the extent of Hollywood‟s domination is accounted for and related to the workings of the distribution companies. In addition, other factors to influence the repertoire are looked at, including the cinemas themselves and trade organisation Film & Kino, as well as national and supranational subsidy programmes to promote cultural diversity. Moreover, Hollywood‟s dominance is explained from an economic perspective focusing on its industry‟s advantageous ability to supply its movies, before a theoretical investigation examines the causal relationship between supply, demand and the formation of tastes. Finally, this project provides a look into the future with the possible changes entailed by the digitisation of the cinemas. Sammendrag Med utgangspunkt i spørsmålet om hva som påvirker beslutninger om repertoar og i hvilken grad, presenterer denne oppgaven en hovedsaklig empirisk analyse av hvordan filmer er brakt til de norske kinolerreter. Med det underliggende målet å redegjøre for hvorfor og hvordan Hollywoods filmer er i stand til å beholde sin dominerende posisjon i Norge, fokuseres det på distribusjon som det avgjørende leddet mellom produsenter og kinoer. Utgangspunktet er en undersøkelse av filmens historiske kommersielle utvikling, som presenterer Hollywoods filmindustri og vilkårene i det norske markedet. Gjennom en detaljert analyse av dagens utvalg av filmer på kino, gjøres det rede for omfanget av Hollywoods dominans og denne knyttes til distribusjonsselskapenes rolle. I tillegg er andre instanser som påvirker repertoaret vurdert, inkludert kinoene selv og bransjeorganisasjonen Film & Kino, samt nasjonale og overnasjonale tilskuddordninger for å fremme kulturelt mangfold. Videre forklares Hollywoods dominans fra et økonomisk perspektiv med fokus på industriens fordelaktige evne til å levere sine filmer, før en teoretisk undersøkelse utforsker årsaks- sammenheng mellom tilbud, etterspørsel og dannelsen av smak. Til slutt gir dette prosjektet et blikk inn i fremtiden med mulige endringer som følge av digitaliseringen av kinoene. ii Preface This thesis was written as part of the Master's degree programme in Media Studies offered by the Institute for Media and Communication at the University in Oslo. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the institute for allowing me a flexible organisation of my studies which made it possible to realise this degree. Thanks go to my supervisor Ove Solum, for continuous support with his expertise on film and cinema in Norway, in particular during spring 2009 and autumn 2010. I am obliged to Nils Klevjer Aas from the Norwegian Film Institute for encouraging me to pursue this project, for valuable comments and for offering me access to the European Audiovisual Observatory‟s excellent statistics and reports. My gratitude goes also to the interview partners and in particular to Bjørn Hoenvoll, for providing valuable inside information on how films are brought to the cinemas and without whom this thesis would not have been the same. Thanks to Bente for most appreciated comments. Ultimately, my warmest thanks go to Jonas, for encouraging me all the way, for being a critical proof-reader and, not least, for all his love. This is for Hannah and Noah – thanks for sharing me with this fascinating topic. Mies, Switzerland, December 2010 Caroline Strutz Skei, iii Table of contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Subject of analysis .............................................................................................................................. 5 1. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Conceptual demarcation ................................................................................................................ 9 1.2 Methodological approach ............................................................................................................ 11 1.3 Presentation and evaluation of sources ....................................................................................... 12 1.3.1 Academic context ................................................................................................................ 12 1.3.2 Official statistics .................................................................................................................. 14 1.3.3 Company information .......................................................................................................... 15 1.3.4 Official policy ...................................................................................................................... 16 1.3.5 Inside information through interviews ................................................................................. 16 1.3.6 Information through trade press ........................................................................................... 17 1.4 Structure of the project ................................................................................................................ 18 2. Film as an institution – perspectives from Hollywood and Norway ................................................. 20 2.1 The medium film ......................................................................................................................... 20 2.1.1 Film‟s value chain................................................................................................................ 21 2.1.2 Film‟s value ......................................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Hollywood‟s industry .................................................................................................................. 24 2.2.1 History in the making – the creation of Hollywood ............................................................ 24 2.2.2 Hollywood redefined ........................................................................................................... 27 2.2.3 Hollywood incorporated ...................................................................................................... 29 2.3 Film in Norway ........................................................................................................................... 31 2.3.1 The Beginning of Film in Norway ....................................................................................... 32 2.3.2 Kommunale Kinematografers Landsforbund / Film & Kino ............................................... 33 2.3.3 Film‟s changing position – post World War II .................................................................... 34 2.3.4 Major changes for Film in Norway – the new millennium .................................................. 36 iv 3. Hollywood‟s dominance in Norway - analysis of the film distribution ............................................ 39 3.1 Films ........................................................................................................................................... 40 3.2 distribution companies ................................................................................................................ 44 3.2.1 Major Hollywood subsidiaries ............................................................................................. 45 3.2.2 Nordic media corporation subsidiaries: ............................................................................... 48 3.2.3 Independents ........................................................................................................................ 52 3.3 Distribution in Norway ............................................................................................................... 56 3.3.1 Workings of the distribution companies .............................................................................. 56 3.3.2 Position of cinema operators................................................................................................ 59 3.3.3 Influence of Film & Kino .................................................................................................... 62 3.3.4 Preliminary findings I .......................................................................................................... 64 4. Political economy or the matter of taste ............................................................................................ 66 4.1 From National to international policies....................................................................................... 67 4.1.1 Regional policy – The Nordic Film & TV Fund.................................................................