Anthropology of East Europe Rcvic\\ WHALING PRODUCTS AS AN ELEMENT OF INDIGENOUS DIET INCHUKOTKA Andrew /. Koz/ov, "ArctAn-C' Innovative Laboratory, Moscow and Eduard V.Zdor, Chukchi Association of Traditional Hunting, Anadyr lifestyle are virtually identical in all coastal Introduction regions ofthe Arctic. The effect of present-day Nutritional traditions are an area where changes in the lifestyle and nutrition on the health biology and culture are closest. In combination of the Arctic marine hunters is also similar with specific environmental resources, nutrient throughout their entire distribution range requirements are responsible for habits and (Shephard and Rode, J996; Kozlov and traditions that are fixed for centuries. Vershubsky, 1999). The above makes it possible to compare the large body of data obtained in the area An Italian inviting someone to partake of ofthe United States, Canada and Gn.:enland. a meal would propose to share "carbohydrates"; for him the word "pasta" does not only mean Nutritional Diversity of"Traditional" Food "spaghetti", or floury dishes, but rather food in general. An invitation by the Russian reflects the Present-day researchers are aware that ecological specificity ofthe Middle-Russian Plain, one cannot underestimate the role of vegetative poor in mineral substances. The Russian would food in the traditional indigenous diets ofthe high invite his guest to partake of"bread and sal!", i.e., latitudes (Kozlov and Vershubsky, 1999; "carbohydrates and microelements". For Inuit Berezovikova and Mamleeva, 200 I). For the (Eskimo), food was originally considered the same indigenous peoples ofthe North, such foods are of as meat "neri". The Inuit terms for eating are particular value in providing fiber tissue and derived from this: To eat is "nerivoq. When dinner vitamins rather than carbohydrates, the main is ready one calls "nerisassat," often sh0!1ened to source of energy in the diet of the majority of "neri.. ." A banquet is understood as a feast with temperate zone residents. The readily-assimilated large quantities of meat, "nerersuarneq" (Larsen carbohydrate food is hard to find in the Arctic, and Oldenburg, 2000). and absorption of carbohydrates in the intestine appears to be difficult in the high latitudes The present communication addresses (Kozlov, 2002). some aspects of human nutritional ecology as determined by biological and cultural adaptation to Despite the low species diversity of the life in high latitudes. high latitude marine and terrestrial fauna, the animal protein food is available in the Arctic in The indigenous populations ofthe sufficient amounts. In addition, the nOl1hem Chukotka Peninsula are the Chukchi and Siberian marine fauna makes it possible to obtain large Eskimos - Yupik. According to the population amounts of fats, the most concentrated foods (fats census of 1989, the Yupik population is 1,704, and exceed proteins and carbohydrates in calorific that of the Chukchi, 15, I 07 (Funk and value per unit mass, containing less water). The Sillanpaa,eds., 1999). At the beginning of the first relative species paucity of the nora and fauna of millennium A.D., some Chukchi tribes moved the high latitudes naturally restricts the range of from the regions ofthe Chukotka Peninsula to the diet of representatives ofthe groups of traditional shores ofthe ambient seas. There, the coastal lifestyle. Marine hunters are characterized by Chukchi came in contact with the Eskimos, and exploitation of marine, littoral and terrestrial partly assumed the cultural elements ofthe marine biotas. This provides notable expansion of the hunters. As a result, the coastal Chukchi and range of food compared with those consumed by Eskimos developed almost identical systems of tundra reindeer herders. But in this case, too, diet nature management and nutritional ecology. On diversity is not great (Damas, 1984; Larsen and this basis, we address the situation in the Oldenburg, 2000). communities of marine hunters of Chukotka as a whole, without dividing them into Chukchi and Terrestrial hunting and gathering have Yupik. been serving for Yupik and coastal Chukchi mostly as auxiliary diets. Eskimos believe that At the same time, the traditional Inuit those foods, no matter how "prestigious" they may (Eskimo) strategy of nature management and be, are not nutritious enough. Birds, fish, plants Vol. 17, No. I 20(H, Page: 127 Anthropology of East Europe Review and eggs "all leave you feeling hungry" (Robert­ inclusion of the maximum possible amounts of Lamblin, 1986). Due to ecological reasons, the diet animal fats (lipids) in the diet. has traditionally been based OIl marine hunting The greatest fat consumption is products - meat and fat of marine mammals. To characteristic of marine hunters (review: Kozlov, date, they alone are thought to be "true" food. 2002). When the Inuit of Canada assess the Marine hunting products acquire the significance advantages of different types oftraditional food, of "cultural super-food", regarded as the gift of they constantly emphasize fat content (Wein and God(s) to become a symbol of ethnic identity Freeman, 1992): "can't live without it (fat)" (about (Garine, 1994; Freeman et aI., 1998). the beluga): "gives us fat" (about the bowhead): Siberian Yupik consume the meat of "makes you get fat" (about the seal). The various marine mammals: the gray whale and traditional diet of an adult male Eskimo included bowhead whale, walrus, bearded seal, ringed seal, about 100 grams of animal fat from meat and ribbon seal and harbor seal. However, the Yupik another 60 g of natural fat of marine mammals treat whaling products as "cultural super-food". (Krupnik, 1989). With such a diet, animal fats alone could provide daily intake of up to 1280 The traditional diet of marine hunters of kCal (5363 kJ) ofenergy, meeting 35-50% of Chukotka comprises about 20 various dishes of energy requirements. meat, fat, skin, flippers, tongue, and entrails of cetaceans (Bogoslovskaya et aI., 1986). The Yupik Adaptation To Protein-Lipid Diet and coastal Chukchi clearly distinguish between the products obtained in the course of marine Consumption of such a considerable hunting. The gray whale is regarded traditionally quantity of proteins and lipids is impossible as seasonal, summer food, since its meat cannot be without considerable adaptive changes. They are stored for a long time. By contrast, the meat ofthe manifested at different levels: physiological bowhead whale can be stored for a long time. (gastric digestion), cultural (gastronomy), Generally, the coastal Chukchi and Siberian biochemical (development of "polar metabolism"). Eskimos regard whale meat as "heavy" food, Various versions of gastric digestion have which is not to be consumed by sick people been described for mammal meat consumers. They (Bogoslovskaya, 200 I, personal communication). also occur in humans at different frequencies (Kozlov, 2002). The so-called "wild-boar Traditional Norms of Consumption nutritional type" characterizes most humans. This Tn the early 20th century, an adult Eskimo type is the most pronounced in omnivorous consumed 1.8 - 2.2 kg ofthe meat of marine mammals, which consume meat along with mammals (Foote, 1970). A wide distribution of vegetative food (like bear and wild-boar). In them, imported foods and an increasing tendency to digestion ofthe food ball in the stomach occurs consume "market food" bring about reduction in mostly at the walls ofthe organ in close contact the proportion of meat in northerners' diet. In the with gastric glands. The acidity of gastric juice is early 1960s the central Alaskan Inuit of fairly low. An increase in acidity brings about Anaktuvuk Pass provided up to 65% energy irritation of the organ's walls, which may cause requirements (Rennie et aI., 1962). In the early development ofgastritis and ulcer. 1970s, the consumption of whale and seal meat by Indigenous residents ofthe Arctic, whose Greenland Inuit averaged 0.387 kg/day (Bang and diet includes, by European standards, an Dyerberg, 1981). The MacKenzie Delta Inuit exceptionally high amount of protein and fats are consume mammal meat (primarily ofthe caribou characterized by the "wolftype" gastric digestion, and beluga whale) on average, 3 10 times a year, similar to that of carnivores. In that case, chemical and various fish species another 21 0 times (Wein treatment ofthe food occurs in the central portion and Freeman, 1992). of the stomach, with high acidity of the gastric Meat is not a single essential component juice. The highly acid medium creates optimal of the northern diet. Another vital element of the conditions for the activity of the proteolytic traditional Arctic kitchen is animal fat. This is enzyme pepsin, resistant only under pH within 1.0­ reflected in the saying by Canadian Arctic Indians: 1.5. In order to protect the organ walls from the "Died ofhunger, consuming rabbits". The lack of impact of acid, its cells excrete great amounts of fats in the indigenous diet of high latitudes may mucus. prove disastrous. Hence, numerous elements of the nutritional culture of Arctic people involve Vol. 17, No. 12003. Page: 128 Anthropology of East Europe Rn iew By the method of target endoscopic pH­ The consumption of large quantities of metry, we have revealed that indigenous fermented food is a method of adaptation to northerners have different hydrochloric acid levels environmental conditions characteristic of the in different portions of the stomachs. Near the indigenous people of the Arctic. The advantage of stomach walls, acidity is lower due to the fermentation as a gastronomic method, sparing development of great quantity of mucus, wh ich scarce Arctic fuel, is self-evident. serves as a protective interlayer between the Consumption of large quantities of fat gastric juice and the stomach walls (Chernenkov, and their utilization as the main energy substrate as Grozdova, Kozlov and Vershubsky, 1992, determ ined by the ecological features of the unpublished data). Our studies have supported the environment required some specific re­ reports to the effect that the above functional arrangement of the biochemical system of activity of stomach glands is manifested in indigenous northerners.