Ursus americanus (Pallas, 1780) Margaret K. Trani and Brian R. Chapman CONTENT AND TAXONOMIC COMMENTS Hall (1981) and Lariviere (2001) recognize 16 subspe- cies of the American black bear (Ursus americanus). Three subspecies occur in the region: U. a americanus, Florida black bear (U. a. floridanus), and Louisiana black bear (U. a. luteolus). The life history of the black bear is reviewed by Kolenosky and Strathearn (1987), Powell et al. (1997), Lariviere (2001), and Pelton (2003). DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS The American black bear is a large-bodied, power- fully built species. Measurements are: total length, 125–180 cm; tail, 8.0–12.5 cm; hind foot, 18.5–28.0 cm; ear 13.0–14.5 cm; weight, 100–250 kg. Males typically are 10–70% heavier than females. Most black bears in the South are uniformly black with a tapered, brown muzzle and an occasional white blaze on the chest (D. Hightower, Quantitative Ecological Services, per- sonal communication). The eyes and erect ears are small. The legs and feet are massive; the plantigrade feet possess strong, recurved claws. The skull is mas- sive (may exceed 30 cm in length) with a large cra- nium, prominent sagittal crest and zygomatic arches, and broad rostrum. Auditory bullae are flat, depressed, and inconspicuous. Nares are large and expose well-developed turbinate bones (Lariviere 2001). In an analysis of morphological characters from eastern black bear, Kennedy et al. (2002a) reported that the largest measurements of the cranium and mandible occurred from animals collected in the southernmost states. The teeth are bunodont and the first three pre- molars are rudimentary; the last upper molar is elon- gate rather than round. The dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 2/3 = 42; the number of premolars may vary on each side of the upper and lower jaws (Figure 1). See keys for details. Kennedy et al. (2002b) provide additional measurements for subspecific rec- Figure 1. Dorsal, ventral, and lateral view of cranium ognition including dentition, height of frontal region, and lateral view of mandible of Ursus americanus and skull length and width. from “Rocky River”, Virginia (USNM 288946, gender unknown) CONSERVATION STATUS considered Critically Imperiled in Mississippi and The American black bear has a global rank of Secure Oklahoma. Regulated hunting seasons occur in Vir- (NatureServe 2007). It is also Secure in Florida and ginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, South Apparently Secure in Georgia, North Carolina and Carolina, and Arkansas. The timing, length of season, Virginia. The black bear is listed as Vulnerable in and methods allowed varies; harvests within each Arkansas, South Carolina, Tennessee and Texas. It is state where hunting is allowed are based on bear Imperiled in Alabama, Kentucky, Louisiana, and population levels. No other game species or its 518 The Land Manager's Guide to Mammals of the South American Black Bear (Ursus americanus) harvest is as closely monitored in the South. There is currently no hunting season in Kentucky, Oklahoma, or Texas. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U. S. Department of the Interior 2007) lists the Louisiana black bear as Threatened, with a recovery plan approved for the species (USFWS 1995). Other bears within the his- toric range of U. a. luteolus are designated as Threat- ened by Similarity of Appearance and are protected in eastern Texas, southern Mississippi, and Louisi- ana. The Florida black bear (U. a. floridanus) is listed as Threatened by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Con- servation Commission. The subspecies was a candi- date for listing under the U. S. Endangered Species Act (Federal Register, 28 February 1996) and subse- quently removed from candidacy (Federal Register, 8 December 1998). The subspecies is protected in Alabama. Figure 2. Distribution of Ursus americanus in the South: (1) U. a. americanus; (2) U. a. floridanus; DISTRIBUTION (3) U. a. luteolus. The American black bear historically ranged through- out most of North America from Alaska to the Atlan- (S. Still, South Carolina Department of Natural tic Ocean and south to central Mexico. The species Resources, personal communication). The Coastal was largely absent only from portions of the Great Plain population occurs primarily in Georgetown Basin Desert and the arid Southwest (Hall 1981, and Horry counties (Golley 1966, Webster et al. 1985, Choate et al. 1994). Habitat loss, fragmentation, and Cothran et al. 1991, Willey et al. 1996, Still 2005). The unrestricted harvest have significantly reduced the two disjunct populations of U. a. americanus in Geor- present distribution of the American black bear gia occur in the Appalachian Mountains and portions (Hellgren and Vaughan 1994, Lariviere 2001). Since of the upper Piedmont in the northern portion of the the 1970s, active state management programs have stateandtheOcmulgeeRiverdrainageintheupper resulted in expanding populations in some portions Coastal Plain (Golley 1962, Laerm et al. 1981, Cantrell of the South (Pelton 2001). et al. 2005). The species is known from 11 counties within the Blue Ridge portion of the southern Appa- U. a americanus. Martin and Steffen (2005) report lachians in eastern Tennessee (Eiler et al. 1989, Kennedy that the black bear has been observed in all but seven 1991, Pelton 2001, 2003). Following an experimental counties in the easternmost portion of Virginia repatriation of black bear during 1996–1998 in the (Figure 2). The highest populations are found in the Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area western mountains (e.g., Shenandoah National Park and Daniel Boone National Forest in Tennessee and in the Blue Ridge Mountains) and in the southeast Kentucky (Eastridge and Clark 1998), a second tidewater area of the Great Dismal Swamp bordering disjunct population now occurs in the Cumberland North Carolina, while populations in the eastern Mountains and Plateau region within Campbell, counties are sparse (Hellgren et al. 1991, Handley Fentress, Morgan, and Scott counties (Brandenburg 1992, Garshelis and Hellgren 1994, Kasbohm et al. 2005). American black bears also occur in other por- 1996, Linzey 1998, D. Martin, Virginia Game and tions of eastern Kentucky (Day et al. 2005) that Inland Fisheries, personal communication). The spe- include dispersing animals from Virginia and West cies occurs in two disjunct populations in North Virginia (Pelton 2001). The bear was reintroduced into Carolina: the first occurs in the Appalachian Moun- the Arkansas Interior Highlands (Ozark and Ouachita tains in the western third of the state and the second Mountains) between 1958–1968 from Minnesota and occurs throughout the Coastal Plain in the eastern Manitoba, Canada (Smith et al. 1991). Today, the portion of the state (Clark et al. 1985, Warburton et Interior Highlands populations have expanded their al. 1993, Pelton and van Manen 1996, Beringer et al. range into Missouri, Oklahoma, and southward 1998, Mitchell et al. 2002, Jones 2005). In South Carolina, along the Ouachita and Saline river drainages themountainpopulationofAmericanblackbear (Eastridge 2005). It also occurs in portions of the Mis- occurs in Oconee, Pickens. and Greenville counties, sissippi Alluvial Valley in the White River National and appears to be expanding their range southward Wildlife Refuge and along the southern border in The Land Manager's Guide to Mammals of the South 519 American Black Bear (Ursus americanus) Ashley, Bradley, and Union counties (Clark and including the Angelina, Cypress, Neches, Red, Sabine, Smith 1994, Bowman et al. 1996, Oli et al. 1997, Clark San Jacinto, Trinity, and Sulphur River basins. et al. 2005). There are questions over the subspecific taxonomy of bears occurring within the refuge; Csiki U. a. floridanus. The six primary black bear popula- et al. (2003) present DNA data indicating that these tions within Florida occur on the Apalachicola animals may be Louisiana black bear. The U. S. Fish National Forest, Big Cypress National Preserve, Eglin and Wildlife Service formally recognize the Arkansas/ Air Force Base, Ocala and Osceola National Forest, Louisiana state border as the range limit for the sub- and St. Johns River region (Maehr and Wooding species (M. Harney, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Roof 1997, Seibert et al. 1997, Dobey et al. 2005, personal communication). Although the black bear Dixon et al. 2006). Two smaller, restricted popula- was extirpated from eastern Oklahoma (Caire et al. tions occur in the Greater Chassahowitzka Ecosystem 1989), the species now occurs in the in the southeast- and in the Glades and Highland counties area (Maehr ern portion of the state in LeFlore, McCurtain, Lati- et al. 2003, Simek 2005). In southeast Georgia, the mer, Haskell, and Pushmataha counties (Bales 2003; subspecies inhabits the Okefenokee National Wildlife R.Bastarache,U.S.ForestService,personalcommu- Refuge and the Dixon Memorial State Forest (Wilson nication). The black bear also occurs in the vicinity of and Ruff 1999, Cantrell et al. 2005). A small, remnant Broken Bow Lake north through the Ouachita population of Florida black bear also exists in south- National Forest and Kiamichi, Winding Stair, and western corner of Alabama near the Mississippi bor- San Bois Mountains (J. Ford, Oklahoma Department der (K. Guyse, Alabama Department of Conservation of Wildlife, personal communication). and Natural Resources, personal communication). U. a. luteolus. In Louisiana, black bears are found in ABUNDANCE STATUS theUpperandLowerAtchafalayaRiverBasininthe south central part of the state and on the Tensas Populations appear to be stable or increasing in Vir- National Wildlife Refuge and surrounding private ginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, South lands in the Tensas River Basin in northeast Louisi- Carolina, and Arkansas. Martin and Steffen (2005) ana (Weaver et al. 1990, Marchinton 1995, Pace et al estimate the number of bears in Virginia at 7000–9000. 2000, Hightower et al. 2002, Clark et al. 2005, Davidson In North Carolina, the mountain population (4000) is 2005). Translocated bears from Minnesota augmented increasing whereas the coastal population (7000) the Upper Atchafalya Basin and Tensas River Basin appears stable (M.