Olga Solovova (In)-Between a rock and a hard place: notes for an ecology of language policies from a complementary school for Eastern European immigrant children in Portugal Tese de Doutoramento em Letras, área de Línguas e Literaturas Modernas, especialidade em Sociolinguística, apresentada à Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Coimbra, sob orienta !o da "ro#essora Doutora Maria Clara Bicudo %&eredo 'eating (ul) *+,- 1 Table of Contents Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................................6 Abstract.................................................................................................................................................7 Resumo.................................................................................................................................................9 Chapter I Introduction........................................................................................................................11 Chapter II Literature Review: Multilingualism and learning as a social practice................................18 II.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................18 II.2 Control over language as societal building.............................................................................18 II.3 Western philosophy, rise of nation-states and linguistic theory............................................21 II.4 Paradigms of nation-state ideologies of language: time, space, or timespace? ...................23 II.4.1 Monolingualism as an 'ideal' model of society...............................................................26 II.4.2 Monoglossic views in education.....................................................................................27 II.5 Ideological approach to literacy..............................................................................................29 II.5.1 Literacy as a social practice.............................................................................................29 II.5.2 Multilingual literacies in mainstream and bilingual education.......................................33 II.5.3 From literacy in a second language to biliteracy and pluriliteracies...............................35 II.6 Learning and agency in multilingual contexts.........................................................................38 II.6.1 Metaphors on language, teaching and learning.............................................................38 II.6.1.1 Language acquisition and language socialisation....................................................39 II.6.1.2 A scenario of child socialisation in multilingual contexts: from family language policies to languaging...........................................................................................................42 II.6.1.3 Economic metaphors for language and literacy socialisation.................................45 II.7 Emerging emphases in research on learning and multilingualism.........................................46 II.7.1 Phenomenology and social spaces of language and learning.........................................47 II.7.2 Ecological approaches to language and multilingualism................................................49 II.7.3 Alternatives to ecology of language................................................................................51 Chapter III Methodology and research procedures...........................................................................53 III.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................53 III.2 Description of the setting and the motivation. .....................................................................53 III.3 Reflections on the nature and on the method for the setting. .............................................55 III.3.1 Culture of the setting.....................................................................................................55 III.3.2 The choice of linguistic ethnography as a method........................................................59 III.4 Catalogue of research activities and data collected..............................................................62 III.4.1 Text-based and interactional data..................................................................................63 III.4.2 Use of ethnographic photographs for a collaborative and democratic research..........66 III.4.3 Research with children...................................................................................................68 III.5 How it all comes together: from description to conceptual ordering...................................69 III.6 Justification of research strategy ..........................................................................................73 III.6.1 Longitudinal ethnography or multi-sited ethnography? ...............................................73 III.6.2 Negotiating the researcher’s identity and acknowledging subjectivity in ethnographic research.....................................................................................................................................76 III.7 System for presenting data: sorting out, anonymising and coding.......................................79 III.7.1 Coding the way to theory...............................................................................................82 III.8 Summary................................................................................................................................85 Chapter IV Language policies in the Russian Empire, Soviet Union and post-Soviet states..............89 IV.1 Language policies in the Russian Empire...............................................................................89 IV.1.1 A foreword on terminology............................................................................................89 2 IV.1.2 “Rightful citizens” and “aliens”......................................................................................90 IV.1.3 Periods of Russification and nativisation.......................................................................91 IV.1.4 Toward an analysis of the language policies in the Russian empire..............................95 IV.2 The revolutionary turn in language policies: new terms and borders...................................97 IV.3 Language policies of the Soviet Union...................................................................................98 IV.3.1 Nativisation policies: new literacies and empowerment...............................................98 IV.3.2 A paradigm shift in Soviet language policies..................................................................99 IV.3.2.1 Course on denativisation and russification............................................................99 IV.3.2.2 Building a supra-ethnic identity along the Russian axis.......................................102 IV.4 Parallels between the language policies of the Russian Empire and the USSR...................105 IV.5 Discrepancies in language policies: opening ways to the USSR dissolution........................107 IV.6 Post-Soviet contexts: Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia.............................................................109 IV.6.1 Russian speakers: what are they?................................................................................109 IV.6.2 Post-Soviet Belarus: actual bilingualism or non-parallel bilingualism? .......................111 IV.6.3 Post-Soviet Ukraine: co-existing ideologies in a complex sociolinguistic situation.....115 IV.6.3.1 A historical and geographical look on Ukraine's language policies......................115 IV.6.3.2 A small borderland region stands apart...............................................................117 IV.6.3.3 East and West: the common history....................................................................118 IV.6.3.4 Russian vs. Ukrainian: a tug of war in the language policies and the sociolinguistic realities of the post-Soviet Ukraine....................................................................................118 IV.6.3.5 The breach in the Ukrainian-only policy: regional languages..............................121 IV.6.4 Towards a critical language policy in post-Soviet Ukraine...........................................122 IV.6.5 Post-Soviet Russia.........................................................................................................123 IV.6.5.1 Alphabet as a language policy..............................................................................123 IV.6.5.2 Language loyalty and territorial approach...........................................................126 IV.6.5.3 Russia as a new migration space..........................................................................128 IV.6.5.3.1 New patterns, new migrations.....................................................................128 IV.6.5.3.2 The “near abroad” policy: new categories...................................................130 IV.6.5.4 The many faces of the Russian language..............................................................131 IV.6.5.4.1 Russian for migrant children in Russia..........................................................136 IV.6.5.4.2 Russia calling: construction of an imagined Russian-speaking community. 138 IV.6.5.5 Russia at the crossroads.......................................................................................141