NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2014 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2014 International Atomic Energy Agency www.iaea.orgAtoms for Peace International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria Telephone: (+43-1) 2600-0 Fax: Atoms(+43-1) for Peace 2600-7 @ Email: [email protected] Cover photo credits, clockwise from top right: (1) IAEA; (2) Directorate for Nuclear Power Plant Construction, Belarus; (3) Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute; (4) AREVA; (5) IAEA; (6) Teollisuuden Voima Oyj; (7) IAEA; (8) IAEA. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2014 The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GHANA OMAN ALBANIA GREECE PAKISTAN ALGERIA GUATEMALA PALAU ANGOLA HAITI PANAMA ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PAPUA NEW GUINEA ARMENIA HONDURAS PARAGUAY AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PERU AUSTRIA ICELAND PHILIPPINES AZERBAIJAN INDIA POLAND BAHAMAS INDONESIA PORTUGAL BAHRAIN IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF QATAR BANGLADESH IRAQ REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA BELARUS IRELAND ROMANIA BELGIUM ISRAEL RUSSIAN FEDERATION BELIZE ITALY RWANDA BENIN JAMAICA SAN MARINO BOLIVIA JAPAN SAUDI ARABIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JORDAN SENEGAL BOTSWANA KAZAKHSTAN SERBIA BRAZIL KENYA SEYCHELLES BRUNEI DARUSSALAM KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SIERRA LEONE BULGARIA KUWAIT SINGAPORE BURKINA FASO KYRGYZSTAN SLOVAKIA BURUNDI LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC SLOVENIA CAMBODIA REPUBLIC SOUTH AFRICA CAMEROON LATVIA SPAIN CANADA LEBANON SRI LANKA CENTRAL AFRICAN LESOTHO SUDAN REPUBLIC LIBERIA SWAZILAND CHAD LIBYA SWEDEN CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN SWITZERLAND CHINA LITHUANIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG TAJIKISTAN CONGO MADAGASCAR THAILAND COSTA RICA MALAWI THE FORMER YUGOSLAV CÔTE D’IVOIRE MALAYSIA REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CROATIA MALI TOGO CUBA MALTA TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS TUNISIA CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA, ISLAMIC TURKEY DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC REPUBLIC OF UGANDA OF THE CONGO MAURITIUS UKRAINE DENMARK MEXICO UNITED ARAB EMIRATES DOMINICA MONACO UNITED KINGDOM OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONGOLIA GREAT BRITAIN AND ECUADOR MONTENEGRO NORTHERN IRELAND EGYPT MOROCCO UNITED REPUBLIC EL SALVADOR MOZAMBIQUE OF TANZANIA ERITREA MYANMAR UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ESTONIA NAMIBIA URUGUAY ETHIOPIA NEPAL UZBEKISTAN FIJI NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA, BOLIVARIAN FINLAND NEW ZEALAND REPUBLIC OF FRANCE NICARAGUA VIET NAM GABON NIGER YEMEN GEORGIA NIGERIA ZAMBIA GERMANY NORWAY ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2014 INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2014 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris) . The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property . Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements . Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis . Enquiries should be addressed to the IAEA Publishing Section at: Marketing and Sales Unit, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel .: +43 1 2600 22417 email: sales .publications@iaea .org http://www .iaea .org/books © IAEA, 2014 Printed by the IAEA in Austria August 2014 IAEA/NTR/2014 EDITORIAL NOTE This report does not address questions of responsibility, legal or otherwise, for acts or omissions on the part of any person. Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained in this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for consequences which may arise from its use. The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. The IAEA has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third party Internet web sites referred to in this book and does not guarantee that any content on such web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. COPYRIGHT NOTICE CONTENTS All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . 1 in 1972 (Paris) . The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual A . POWER APPLICATIONS . 7 property . Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty A .1 . Nuclear power today . 7 agreements . Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are A .2 . The projected growth of nuclear power . 16 welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis . Enquiries should be addressed A .3 . Fuel cycle . 19 to the IAEA Publishing Section at: A .3 .1 . Uranium resources and production . 19 A .3 .2 . Conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication . 23 Marketing and Sales Unit, Publishing Section A .3 .3 . Back end of the nuclear fuel cycle . 28 International Atomic Energy Agency A .3 .4 . Decommissioning, remediation and Vienna International Centre radioactive waste management . 30 PO Box 100 A .4 . Safety . 41 1400 Vienna, Austria References to Section A . 43 fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel .: +43 1 2600 22417 B . ADVANCED FISSION AND FUSION . 45 email: sales .publications@iaea .org http://www .iaea .org/books B .1 . Advanced fission . 45 B .1 .1 . Water cooled reactors . 45 B .1 .2 . Fast neutron systems . 46 B .1 .3 . Gas cooled reactors . 48 B .1 .4 . Small and medium sized reactors . 53 B .1 .5 . International initiatives on innovative nuclear systems . 59 B .1 .6 . Cogeneration for non-electric applications of nuclear energy . 61 B .2 . Nuclear fusion . 64 References to Section B . 67 C . ACCELERATOR AND RESEARCH REACTOR APPLICATIONS . 68 C .1 . Accelerators . 68 C .2 . Research reactors . 72 References to Section C . 76 D . NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE ANIMAL PRODUCTION WHILE REDUCING GREENHOUSE GASES . 77 D .1 . Environmentally friendly livestock management . 77 D .1 .1 . Meeting the increasing demand for animal source food . 77 D .1 .2 . Good practices to reduce GHG emissions . 78 D .1 .3 . Win–win between production increases and mitigation interventions . 79 D .2 . Nuclear techniques to address GHG emissions . 80 D .2 .1 . Improving the digestibility of poor quality roughage . 80 D .2 .2 . Genetic characterization of rumen microflora for improving ruminal digestibility . 81 D .2 .3 . Breeding livestock for improved productivity while maintaining adaptability to local conditions . 82 D .2 .4 . Improving herd level productivity and reducing GHG emissions . 82 D .2 .5 . Characterization and selection of tropical forages and development of forage agronomy . 82 D .2 .6 . Improved pasture management for sustainable animal agriculture and a sustainable environment . 83 D .2 .7 . Manure management and recycling through biogas technology . 84 D .3 . Conclusions . 84 References to Section D . 85 E . DIGITAL IMAGING AND TELERADIOLOGY: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES . 86 E .1 . Technology and advantages of digital imaging . 86 E .2 . Moving from analogue to digital systems . 88 E .2 .1 . General challenges . 88 E .2 .2 . Implementation and specific challenges for medical personnel . 88 E .3 . Teleradiology . 89 E .3 .1 . Technology . 90 E .3 .2 . Examples of implementation . 91 E .4 . Conclusions . 92 References to Section E . 93 F . RADIATION TECHNOLOGY FOR WASTEWATER AND BIOSOLIDS TREATMENT: SOLUTIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION . 94 F .1 . A role for radiation technology in environmental protection . 94 F .2 . Current issues in wastewater and sludge treatment for reuse . 94 F .3 . Present status of radiation technology applications in wastewater and sludge treatment . 95 F .3 .1 . Electron beam treatment of textile dyeing wastewater . 95 F .3 .2 . Sludge treatment using high energy radiation . 97 F .4 . Radiation technology for addressing emerging water pollutants . 98 F .5 . Future research needs and challenges . 99 F .6 . Conclusions . 100 References to Section F . 100 G . ADDRESSING HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS IN A CHANGING MARINE ENVIRONMENT . 101 G .1 . Nuclear technologies for tracking marine biotoxins in seafood and the environment . 101 G .1 .1 . The impact of harmful algal bloom toxins on seafood trade . 101 G .1 .2 . A newly validated nuclear based method for analysing algal toxins . 102 G .2 . Nuclear technologies to study harmful algal blooms in relation to past and present environmental and climatic changes . 104 G .3 . Conclusions . 106 References