1 The Resources and Economy of Roman Nicomedia Submitted by Hale Güney to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Classics in March 2012 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis, which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 2 ABSTRACT The last twenty years have seen an increasing interest in ancient economic studies, and especially criticism of the primitivist approach to the ancient economy. Although the current state of ancient economic studies shows a range of different approaches, and has produced new models to interpret the ancient economy beyond the great debate between the modernists and the primitivists, there is still room for discussion of both old and new approaches to the study of urban economies. This thesis studies the resources and the economy of Roman Nicomedia, a city where systematic excavation has not yet been conducted but where archaeological survey research has being carried out since 2005. The aim of this study is to assess the production, consumption, and distribution patterns of the city within its own dynamics. In terms of methodology, it takes into consideration Louis Robert’s work on the Bithynian cities within the longue durée and accordingly, evaluates accounts from the pre-industrial period of Nicomedia, modern İzmit, under the Ottoman Empire. This study particularly takes into account the travellers’ notes from the 18th to the 19th centuries along with available primary and secondary sources in order to grasp the moments of the transformation and change in the production and consumption patterns in Nicomedia/İzmit over time. Finally, the thesis, which synthesizes textual and material evidence from Nicomedia as well as from the region of Bithynia, ascertains the city’s income and expenses. The thesis challenges the Finleyan idea of self-sufficiency and scrutinizes the limits of the ‘consumer city’ model. By focusing on the case of Roman Nicomedia, rather than falling into generalisation, this study attempts to investigate the effects of production and consumption patterns in the development of the non-agricultural sector in general, and pays particular attention to the underestimated role of trade in the urban economy. The thesis also evaluates the role of the Roman state and army in the economy of the city and asks whether this should be seen as a stimulus or burden affecting consumption and distribution patterns. This study therefore examines the resources, the self-sufficiency, the commercial commodities, trading activities and the level of connectivity of Roman Nicomedia. The case of Nicomedia should encourage other case studies to reveal the dynamics of urban economies under the Roman Empire. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Title, with declaration 1 Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 List of Tables 5 List of Figures 5 Acknowledgements 8 Abbreviations 9 Introduction 11 Chapter I: Methodological Approaches to the Economy of Nicomedia in the light of modern scholarship 22 I. Introduction 22 II. The Resources of Nicomedia in the light L. Robert’s Works within Braudelian long-term history (longue durée) 24 III. Re-interpretation of Braudelian Mediterranean and Connectivity of Micro- regions in the case of Nicomedia 36 IV. Limits of the ‘ideal type’, and the impact of the Roman State and Army in Nicomedia 46 Chapter II: History of Settlers and Settlements in Bithynia from Archaic times to the Roman Empire 65 I. Settlers and Settlements from Archaic Period to the Foundation of the City 65 II. Cities and Villages from the early Hellenistic Period to the Late Antiquity 84 III. Conclusion 102 Chapter III: The Resources of Nicomedia and its Production-Consumption Patterns 104 I. The Resources and Production Patterns of Nicomedia 105 II. Consumption Patterns of Nicomedia 146 III. Conclusion 158 Chapter IV: Trade, Traders, and Connectivity of Roman Nicomedia 161 I. Roads, Transportation and Overseas Connection 161 II. The Economics of the Routes 174 III. Conclusion and Proposal for Civic Revenues and City Type 218 4 Chapter V: The Survival and the Circulation of the Civic Coins of Roman Nicomedia 223 I. The mint of Nicomedia: coinage in the city from Hellenistic Period onwards 224 II. The survival of the civic coins 230 IV. The Circulation of the Civic Coins 238 V. Conclusion 249 Chapter VI: Concluding Analysis 251 Appendix-1 263 Appendix-2 266 Bibliography 276 Figures 334 5 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Settlements attested in the territory of Nicomedia. 95-96 Table 2: Late Roman settlements attested in the territory of Nicomedia. 100 Table 3: List of Nicomedian landowners attested in/around the city. 133-134 Table 4: Total areas and proportion of agricultural land. 137 Table 5: Production figures (hectolitre/1000) of cereal crops in İzmit Mutasarrıflığı in 1893 (Cuinet 1895, 314). 139 Table 6: Average bulk densities of grains. 140 In: http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/PC_91888.html?s=1001 Table 7: Production figures (kg/1000) of legumes & vegetables in İzmit Mutasarrıflığı in 1893 (Cuinet 1895, 314). 145 Table 8: Census and population density figures of İzmit in 1893 and 1940-1950. 154 Table 9: List of ship-owners, captains, traders, sculptors, architect, and marble worker from Nicomedia attested in the Mediterranean. 207-209 Table 10: Civic Revenues and Expenses of the city of Nicomedia. 222 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: The Marmara Region and its surroundings. 335 Figure 2: Inscriptions carrying Thracian names attested in the territory of Nicomedia (Corsten 2007, 124, map: Bithynia: the heartland). 335 Figure 3: Physical Map of Ancient Bithynia and surroundings (Barrington Atlas, Map 52). 336 Figure 4: The province of Bityhnia and the territory of Nicomedia (blue dots by the present author), (Map in Calder-Bean 1958). 336 Figure 5: Estimated territory of Nicomedia. 337 Figure 6: İzmit Mutasarrıflığı in 1890s (specified as light orange), (Cuinet 1895). 337 Figure 7: Kocaeli Province. 338 Figure 8: Kocaeli Province and its districts today. 338 In: http://www.istanbul-rehber.com/harita/il/kocaeli-haritasi.asp Figure 9: Olive/Flax/Wine presses attested in İzmit (red circles by the present author), (map in TAM 1974). 339 Figure 10: Wine press (?) found in Umuttepe-İzmit (Survey 2006). 339 6 Figure 11: Wine press (?) found in Umuttepe-İzmit (Survey 2006). 340 Figure 12: Interior city walls of Nicomedia (Şahin 1974, Karte II, p. 13). 340 Figure 13: A schematic city plan drawn by the present author. 341 Figure 14: Estimated urban territory. 341 Figure 15: Estimated exterior walled area in Nicomedia, (follow yellow line). 342 Figure 16: Estimated total population of the territory of Nicomedia, which is calculated by using density figures suggested by various scholars multiplied by the land area of Nicomedia (Beloch-Brunt and Nissen-Frank and Usher). 152 Figure 17: A comparison of urban and territorial census figures of İzmit in 1893 and 1927-1950. 153 Figure 18: Primary roads passing through Nicomedia and Bithynia (Winfield 1977). 342 Figure 19: The secondary roads between Nicomedia and Şile and Kandıra, and the canal scheme drawn by the present author, (map in Moore 1950, fig.1). 343 Figure 20: Sea Routes (Arnaud 2007). 343 Figure 21: Isis Pharia on coin of Antoninus Pius (The Ashmolean Collection, Env. No. Peus 366 15.10.2000). 344 Figure 22: Isis Pharia on coin of Marcus Aurelius (RG 517, 86). 344 Figure 23: Isis Pharia on coin of Salonina (RG 572, 421). 345 Figure 24: Argo on coin of Commodus (RG 536, 153). 345 Figure 25: Re-construction of navis oneraria (Göttlicher 1977, 47). 346 Figure 26: Prow with serpent on coin of Domitianus (RG 520, 33). 346 Figure 27: Nike, right, crowning, and prow on the right (Marcus Aurelius, RG 528, 90). 347 Figure 28: Sailing ship (merchant ship) depicted on coin of Commodus (BMC 185, 36). 347 Figure 29: Sailing oared galley (warship?) on coin of Commodus (The Ashmolean Collection Env. No. A.H. Baldwin BMS, 11.7.1938). 348 Figure 30: Navis oneraria (?) on coin of Antoninus Pius (Collection of İstanbul Archaeological Museum, BMC 17; Cat. Nic. 17). 348 Figure 31: Navis oneraria (?) on coin of Antoninus Pius (BMC 1961.3.1.117). 349 Figure 32: Navis oneraria (?) on coin of Antoninus Pius (The Fitzwilliam Collection Env. No. Mossop. Coll Glend 4/23, Pilot 365). 349 Figure 33: Navis onerariae (?) depicted on coin of Maximinus Thrax (RG 567, 387). 350 7 Figure 34: Navis oneraria (?) on coin of Philip II (SNGAul. 843). 350 Figure 35: Fishing vessel (?) on coin of Maximinus Thrax (BMC 189, 60). 351 Figure 36: Fishing vessel (?) on coin of Septimius Severus (BMC 186, 43). 351 Figure 37: Fishing vessel (?) on coin of Antoninus Pius (BMC 1921 11 Spink 20). 352 Figure 38: Galley and temples of Nicomedia depicted on coin of Commodus (BMC 185, 34). 352 Figure 39: Stolos on coin of Antoninus Pius (BMC 181, 16). 353 Figure 40: Kutluca quarry (Survey 2008). 353 Figure 41: Quarry and sarcophagus workshop at Kandıra/İzmit (Ҫalık-Ross 2007, 140). 354 Figure 42: Nicomedian traders (green) and marble workers (orange). 354 Map by Ian Mladjov, in: http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/romana337.jpg Figure 43: Amphorae displayed in İzmit Archaeological Museum, without label, (taken by the present author) . 355 Figure 44: Tuna on coin of Septimius Severus (RG 539, 177). 355 Figure 45: Tuna on coin of Lucius Verus (RG 532, 119). 356 Figure 46: Nicomedians attested in the Mediterranean. 356 Map by Ian Mladjov, in: http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/romana337.jpg Figure 47: Nicomedian captains (blue), ship-owners (red) in the Mediterranean.