UNIVERSITY OF TARTU DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE THE IMPACT OF CULTURAL VALUES AND SOCIETAL FACTORS ON THE PACE OF LIFE AND ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE IN THE UNITED STATES, WESTERN EUROPE AND ESTONIA: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS MA thesis KRISTIINA KUSLAPUU SUPERVISOR: Prof. KRISTA VOGELBERG TARTU 2009 Abstract The present thesis describes values and socioeconomic factors in the United States and in Western Europe with a special interest in how these relate to time-use. Cultural traits associated with Americans (e.g. competitiveness, acquisitiveness and achievement orientation) are thought to foster work to a greater extent than traits commonly linked with West Europeans (e.g. solidarity, cooperation and appreciation of stability). Insecurity that emanates from liberality is likewise a factor motivating work in the United States while state-coordination provides a greater sense of security. Tax systems and labour market regulation, especially the degree of unionisation, have been explained as influencing the length of working time in a society. As a result of various factors, Americans work more hours than Europeans. Contemporary Estonians, too, can be seen as focused on work. Culturally there exists a tendency to see work as morally good. Liberal ideology promotes work-centeredness and self-reliance. The sense of insecurity has led to emphasising hard values and the role of work as the guarantor of survival. Consumerist desires can be met only once money has been earned through work. Also, catching up with the West motivates people to postpone personal gratification. Results of a survey among Estonian respondents conducted as part of the thesis further indicate the importance of work in the post-independence Estonian society. 2 Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents................................................................................................................ 3 1. Introduction..................................................................................................................... 5 2 Culture and Values as Influencing Attitudes to Work and Leisure in the United States and in Western Europe...................................................................................................... 12 2.1. The Concepts of Culture, National Character, Stereotypes and Values .................... 12 2.2. The American and European Characters ................................................................... 14 2.2.1. American Cultural Character .................................................................................. 14 2.2.2. European Cultural Character................................................................................... 20 2.2.3. The American Dream as Compared to the European Dream ................................. 23 3. Economic and Societal Factors as Influencing Work-Leisure Patterns in the United States and in Western Europe ........................................................................................... 26 3.1. Basic Characteristics of the Liberal Tradition in the United States and of State- Coordination in Western Europe ...................................................................................... 26 3.2. Social Protection and the Level of Uncertainty ......................................................... 29 3.3. Socioeconomic Factors as Influencing Time-Use in the United States and in Western Europe............................................................................................................................... 32 3.4. Criticism and Change................................................................................................. 35 4. Use of Time, Work and Leisure in the United States and in Western Europe.............. 37 4.1. Working Time in the United States and in Western Europe...................................... 37 4.2. A Few Observations on the Nature of Current Work and the Workplace as Fostering Work in the United States................................................................................................. 38 4.3. Consumerism as Linked with Leisure........................................................................ 41 4.4. Some Lifestyle Issues in the United States and in Western Europe .......................... 46 5. Values, the Socioeconomic Condition, Work, Leisure and Pace of Life in Estonia .... 49 5.1. Cultural Background and National Character............................................................ 50 5.2. The Socioeconomic Situation in Estonia ................................................................... 53 5.2.1. Neoliberalism as Prevailing in the Contemporary Estonian Society ...................... 54 5.2.2. Socioeconomic Factors as Fostering Work in Contemporary Estonia ................... 56 5.3. The Daily Environment as Fostering Work in Contemporary Estonia...................... 58 5.3.1. Materialist Orientation............................................................................................ 59 5.3.2. Lack of Cooperation and Stratification................................................................... 61 5.3.3. The Cult of Visible Success and the Resultant Emphasis on Consumerism .......... 64 5.3.4 Abundant Work in Contemporary Estonia .............................................................. 70 5.3.5. Happiness and Quality of life ................................................................................. 75 6. The Findings of the Survey on Values and Time Use .................................................. 80 6.1. Descriptions of the Estonian Character...................................................................... 80 6.2 Social Views ............................................................................................................... 82 6.3 Achievement Orientation and Materialism................................................................. 84 6.4. Work and Leisure....................................................................................................... 86 6.5 Happiness.................................................................................................................... 89 6.6. Conclusions of the Survey. ........................................................................................ 90 7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 92 References......................................................................................................................... 95 3 Appendix 1: The Questionnaire...................................................................................... 104 Appendix 2: Some Numerical Data Subtracted from the Results of the Survey............ 109 Annotatsioon................................................................................................................... 112 4 1. Introduction Following the collapse of the Soviet Union life in Estonia has changed a great deal. The spread of Americanism has been seen in the affinity towards big cars, private houses and flashy consumer items, the significance of materialism, the importance of labels on things, the success of liberal ideology, achievement orientation, the emphasis on work, the deference to money, rampant individualism, veneration of competitiveness, the respect towards an enterprising mind, the need to prove one’s wealth and power, lack of solidarity, the feelings of insecurity and of anxiety, and the rising contrasts between the rich and the poor or “the winners and losers”. It can be argued that in terms of the things people hold in high regard, many similarities can now be found in the Estonian (and also other East Europeans countries) and the American approaches. At the same time, as Estonia is located in Europe and belongs in the European Union, the country is inevitably also influenced by the realities found in the western part of Europe. The present thesis sets out to look into some of the values people living in Estonia hold, more specifically to compare Estonian values to those in the United States and those in Western Europe, trying to trace American and European traits in the way of life and ways of thought in Estonia and changes of various aspects in Estonian reality following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The impact of values on the use of time (i.e. on work and leisure patterns) will be under special interest. Both America and Western Europe represent Western culture in Huntington’s sense, both are highly industrialized and both have some of the richest populations in the world. America’s culture can be said to be based on the West European one having been imported/exported by the early settlers and thereafter developed and transformed there. Although sharing many traits and having much in common in basic ways of thinking and acting, the so-called “Western Culture” based on Christian religion and also comprising Estonia, is an abstraction and cannot be considered homogenous. Timothy Garton Ash, for instance proposes an overlap of 85 % between the American and European cultures leaving a margin for difference (Byatt). Americans (or the inhabitants of the United States as they are referred to in the present thesis) have various traits that set them apart from West Europeans, making relevant comparisons between the attitudes, values, opinions,